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R.ECOR.D 

A  Journal  Devoted  to  the  Practical  Problems 
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November,  1907 


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THE 

INDUSTRIAL  IMPROVEMENT 

SCHOOLS 

OF 

WUERTTEMBERG 


PUBLISHED   BY 

THE  COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

Columbia  University,  New  York 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY,  AGENTS 

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Entered  as  Second-Class  Matter  at  the  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Post  Office,  June  12,  1900 
Copyright,  1907,  by  Teachers  College 


Teachers  College  Record 

Edited  by  James  E.  Russell 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD  is  a  serial  publication  issued 
by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  for  the  purpose  of 
presenting  to  students  of  Education,  and  to  the  public  gener- 
ally, a  comprehensive  view  of  the  history  and  principles  of 
education,  of  educational  administration,  and  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  teaching  as  advocated  and  followed  by  Teachers 
College  and  its  schools  of  observation  and  practice. 


ANNOUNCEMENT 

On  account  of  the  timeliness  of  all  matters  relating  to  indus- 
trial education,  the  RECORD  publishes  this  month  a  study 
of  u  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  Wuerttemberg" 
instead  of  the  number  by  Professor  Johnson  on  "  Methods  of 
Teaching  History"  as  previously  announced.  This  number, 
however,  will  appear  in  the  coming  year  together  with  one  on 
the  "  Teaching  of  Fine  Arts  "  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Dow,  and  one  on  "  Manual  Training"  by  Professor  Richards. 
The  number  for  January  will  contain  a  classified  and  critical 
bibliography  of  juvenile  literature  edited  with  an  introduction 
by  Professor  Baker. 

Published  bi-monthly,  except  July.  Subscription  price, 
$1.00  per  annum  ;  single  numbers,  30  cents  ;  postage  prepaid  ; 
on  5  or  more  copies  a  discount  of  20  %  is  granted.  All  sub- 
scriptions begin  with  the  current  number.  Back  numbers  will 
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of  this  issue.  Advertising  rates  given  on  application. 

Address  all  communications  to  Teachers  College  Record 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City 


The 

Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of 
Wuerttemberg 

Together  with  a  Brief  Description  of  the  Other  Industrial  and  Com- 
mercial Schools  of  the  Kingdom,  and  an  Outline  of  the 
Activities  of  the  Wuerttemberg  Central  Bureau 
for  Industry  and  Commerce 

By 

Albert  A.  Snowden 


Wer  soil  Meister  sein  ?     Wer  was  ersann. 
Wer  soil  Geselle  sein  ?     Wer  was  kann. 
Wer  soil  Lehrling  sein  ?    Jedermann. 

— Goethe. 

The   industrious    spirit  is   assailed   by  but    one  Devil  —  the  idle  by  legion. 
-Eastern  Proverb. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

FOREWORD  ........         i 

PREFACE      .........         2 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE    .......         5 

I. — THE   PLACE  OF  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  IN 
THE  KINGDOM  .... 

II. — THE  RISE  OF  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS  .         .       22 

III. — THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL 

IMPROVEMENT  SCHOOLS      ...       34 

IV. — THE   INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOL   OF  STUTTGART, 

AND  THE  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  .          .       48 

V. — OTHER  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS,  AND  THE  CEN- 
TRAL BUREAU  FOR  INDUSTRY  AND 
COMMERCE  .....  57 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD 


VOL.  VIII  NOVEMBER,  1907  No.  5 


FOREWORD 

At  the  present  time  few  matters  pertaining  to  education 
have  more  significance  for  Americans  than  those  which  reveal 
the  accomplishments  of  the  modern  German  nation,  and  per- 
haps no  feature  of  German  educational  progress  means  more  to 
us  to-day  than  that  which  pertains  to  vocational  training. 

The  memoir  which  is  here  printed  is  a  study  of  the  system 
of  industrial  and  vocational  schools  in  one  of  the  smaller  king- 
doms of  the  German  Empire.  It  sets  forth  briefly  the  economic 
conditions  which  hold  in  the  kingdom  of  Wuerttemberg,  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country  and  the  system  of  transporta- 
tion. It  then  traces  the  development  in  this  environment  of 
the  system  of  industrial  schools  and  the  service  which  they 
render  in  the  up-building  and  maintenance  of  the  state. 

Such  a  study  seems  to  me  particularly  opportune  and  the 
reading  of  this  report  answers  the  questions  which  the  American 
is  likely  to  ask.  He  desires  to  know  how  such  schools  arose, 
what  the  different  kind  of  schools  are,  how  the  pupil  is  steered 
into  them,  and  what  part  the  vocational  training  plays  in  his 
preparation  for  life.  In  describing  one  of  the  smaller  kingdoms 
of  Southern  Germany,  Mr.  Snowden  has  here  made  it  possible 
for  the  American  reader  to  understand  and  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  industrial  education  and  the  function  which  it  plays  in 
an  agricultural  and  manufacturing  state  as  he  can  only  under- 
stand it  by  reading  the  actual  story  of  some  one  of  these  states. 

HENRY  S.  PRITCHETT. 


PREFACE 

The  report  herewith  presented  is  the  outcome  of  some  weeks 
spent  in  Wuerttemberg,  during  an  investigation  of  vocational 
training  in  Europe.  Although  many  other  states  abroad  have 
made  noteworthy  provisions  to  secure  greater  industrial  efficiency, 
it  is  the  writer's  belief  that  on  the  whole  Wuerttemberg  offers 
the  experience  most  fruitful  for  our  consideration  at  present.  To 
be  sure  we  do  not  have  here  a  young  giant  of  the  democracies, 
rich  in  undeveloped  resources,  with  the  means  within  easy  reach 
to  recoup  any  youthful  extravagances,  but,  rather,  a  tight-skinned 
monarchy  that  was  in  danger  of  paresis  over  a  half-century  ago, 
and  almost  as  populous  then  as  it  is  now.  Moreover,  fate  had 
set  it  down  in  a  hilly  region  that  seems  vastly  more  like  a 
pleasant  place  to  live  in  than  a  good  place  to  get  a  living. 
Indeed,  the  fierce  economic  struggle  of  the  early  days  drove 
thousands  of  Wuerttemberg  citizens  into  permanent  exile  from 
the  Fatherland.  During  the  first  five  years  of  the  last  half- 
century  the  kingdom  actually  witnessed  a  diminution  of  sixty 
thousand  in  the  total  population.  It  was  said  that  the  country 
was  overcrowded. 

Wuerttemberg  had  long  been  in  the  lead  among  the  Teutonic 
states  for  general  culture  in  education,  a  notable  achievement, 
perhaps  unappreciated  abroad  because  of  the  political  ascendency 
of  Prussia.  Still  the  population  was  too  dense.  Finally,  those 
statesmen  who  had  maintained  that  industrial  efficiency  makes 
its  own  elbow-room  in  the  world  were  allowed  to  take  such  steps 
as  would  provide  a  broad  vocational  training  for  every  one  in 
the  kingdom  who  could  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity. 
Gradually  but  surely  the  country  evolved  within  itself  the 
elements  of  commercial  stability  and  economic  independence 
that  have  placed  it  in  the  front  rank  of  nations.  The  tide  of 


353]  Preface.  3 

emigration  has  been  checked,  the  population  has  increased 
rapidly,  and  the  whole  land  shows  evidence  of  general 
prosperity.  Also  there  is  more  room  than  ever  before.  The 
story  of  this  development,  full  of  suggestiveness  for  America,  is 
the  theme  of  the  following  chapters.  The  chief  institutions 
concerned  are  the  industrial  improvement  schools,  and  the 
Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  (Zentralstelle  fuer 
Gewerbe  und  Handel)  a  branch  of  the  Interior  Ministry.  During 
an  active  career,  three  years  of  which  were  spent  in  the  Orient 
as  legal  adviser  to  the  Japanese  government,  its  president, 
Ritter  von  Mosthaf ,  has  been  able  to  perform  services  for  his 
country  that  are  nothing  short  of  wonderful.  Moreover  they 
have  met  with  the  high  approval  of  king  and  commoner.  The 
new  National  Industrial  Museum  (Landesgewerbemuseum)  at 
Stuttgart,  an  institution  that  is  worth  going  around  the  world 
to  see,  is  one  of  the  monuments  of  his  sagacity.  Another 
important  accomplishment  for  which  he  has  earned  the 
greatest  credit  is  the  new  law  governing  the  reorganization  of 
the  industrial  improvement  schools.  Since  the  details  of  this 
law  are  all  set  forth  in  Chapter  III,  it  is  unnecessary  to  print 
the  text  of  this  brief  enactment  in  the  report. 

While  it  might  have  been  more  desirable,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  sequence  in  time,  to  have  introduced  the  historical 
chapter  (II)  at  the  outset,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  reader 
would  appreciate  first  a  summary  statement  of  what  Wuerttem- 
berg  has  actually  accomplished  by  means  of  its  system  of 
vocational  training.  The  historical  chapter,  however,  finds  its 
justification  and  interest  in  the  fact  that  it  gives  a  brief  outline 
of  the  battles  that  have  been  fought  in  the  past  for  industrial 
betterment  through  training,  and  by  so  doing  may  offer  some 
guidance  to  us  who  have  just  entered  upon  a  similar  struggle  to 
secure  greater  average  efficiency  in  America. 

The  present  monograph  is  an  abridgment  of  the  chapters  on 
industrial  training  in  a  work  on  "The  Schools  of  Wuerttemberg, " 
to  be  issued  at  another  time.  Written  some  months  ago,  the 
present  treatise  was  accepted  for  publication  by  a  society  of 
national  scope,  but  through  the  error  of  an  officer  in  that  society 
publication  was  delayed  during  my  absence  in  Europe.  A 
similar  monograph,  written  by  myself,  is  appearing,  however,  in 
the  School  Journal. 


4  Teachers  College  Record.  [354 

I  am  under  especial  obligations  to  President  von  Mosthaf, 
who  not  only  furnished  me  with  a  number  of  helpful  state 
documents,  but  also  generously  answered  questions  as  to  the 
working  of  the  system  of  industrial  schools  and  allied  problems 
on  many  occasions. 

It  also  gives  me  great  pleasure  at  this  time  to  acknowledge 
the  helpful  interest  and  assistance  of  Dean  James  E.  Russell, 
of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  under  whose  auspices 
this  and  other  investigations  have  been  conducted  abroad  by 
the  writer;  the  kindly  encouragement  of  Messrs.  T.  A.  Sperry 
and  John  Jamieson;  the  suggestive  criticisms  of  Mr.  Felix  M. 
Warburg,  and  especially  of  President  Henry  S.  Pritchett,  who 
has  co-operated  in  the  final  revision,  and  has  kindly  written  a 
foreword.  I  wish  also  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  for 
the  courteous  aid  of  the  Wuerttemberg  Minister  for  Religious 
Affairs  and  Education,  Dr.  von  Weizsaecker;  of  President  von 
Stumpf  and  Dr.  Losch  of  the  Statistical  Office;  of  Ministerial 
Director  Baelz;  and  finally  of  many  school  principals,  teachers, 
manufacturers  and  business  men,  students,  artisans,  and  experts 
throughout  the  kingdom,  who  gave  me  freely  of  their  valuable 
time,  with  that  rare  courtesy  and  helpful  spirit  which  I  have  so 
often  met  with  abroad. 

A.  A.  S. 

420  West  i2ist  Street, 
New  York  City 


WUERTTEMBERG. AREA,  POPULATION,  DESCRIPTION,  GOVERNMENT 

The  Kingdom  of  Wuerttemberg,  in  South  Germany,  is  the  third 
German  state  in  area  (7528  sq.  mi.)  and  the  fourth  in  population  (2,300,- 
330  in  1905).  Compared  with  New  Jersey  (area  8i73"sq.  mi.,  pop. 
2,144,143  in  1905)  or  with  Massachusetts  (area  8546  sq.  mi.,  pop. 
3,003,635  in  1905),  it  shows  a  lesser  area  and  a  population  between  the 
two.  Texas  is  over  thirty -five  times  the  size  of  Wuerttemberg.  To  be 
noted  on  the  map  is  the  irregular  wedge  of  land  (entering  from  the  south) 
formed  by  the  little' territory  of  Hohenzollern  (440  sq.  mi.) — an  isolated 
province  of  Prussia,  and  the  original  cradle  of  the  present  Imperial  dyn- 
asty. From  Ulm,  at  the  Bavarian  border,  the  Danube  is  navigable, 
and  from  Heilbronn,  in  the  north,  the  Neckar  carries  ships,  while  traffic 
on  the  Lake  of  Constance  is  brisk  in  all  seasons.  The  Black  Forest  Hills 
crop  out  in  the  west  and  furnish  "Hollaender, "  the  great  pines  that  are 
floated  down  to  the  Dutch  shipyards.  The  Swabian  Alps  are  thrown 
across  the  country  from  southwest  to  northeast.  On  the  whole,  the  land 
is  hilly,  with  mountains  and  valleys  interspersed  in  bewildering  confusion. 
The  climate  is  equally  varied.  Thirty-one  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is 
forest,  mostly  government  owned.  Sixty-four  per  cent,  is  under  culti- 
vation, and  furnishes  work  for  forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
Wuerttemberg,  since  1806  a  kingdom,  has  been  a  constitutional  monarchy 

5  F355 


6  Teachers  College  Record  [356 

since  1819.  The  present  King  is  William  II  (ace.  1891).  The  Parliament 
is  composed  of  two  houses  ("estates ").  The  upper  chamber,  or  House  of 
Standesherren,  has  as  members:  the  royal  princes  (four  at  present),  persons 
named  by  the  King  (there  were  two  in  1906  with  hereditary  rights,  and 
six  who  had  been  named  for  life),  and  the  representatives  of  mediatized 
houses  (seventeen  in  1906).  The  King  appoints  the  president  of  this 
house.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  or  lower  house,  is  composed  of  thirteen 
nobles,  six  evangelical  and  three  catholic  dignitaries,  the  Chancellor  of 
the  state  university,  seven  representatives  of  cities,  and  sixty-three 
representatives  of  districts  that  might  be  called  "congressional,"  though 
better  known  as  administrative  units.  There  are  six  Ministries — Justice, 
Foreign  Affairs,  Interior,  Religious  Affairs  and  Education,  War,  and 
Finance.  For  purposes  of  administration  the  country  is  divided  into 
four  "Circles":  Neckar  (chief  seat  Ludwigsburg) ,  Black  Forest  (Reut- 
lingen),  Danube  (Ulm),  and  Jagst  (Ellwangen).  These  correspond  fairly 
well  with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  kingdom.  The  "Circles"  are  di- 
vided into  a  total  of  sixty-four  "Districts "  (Oberaemter} ,  Stuttgart  making 
two  of  these.  The  smallest  local  division  is  the  Gemeinde,  or  commune, 
corresponding  fairly  well  to  our  "township."  Of  these  there  are  1905. 
Thirty-seven  of  them  have  a  population  of  five  thousand  or  over,  that  is, 
are  cities,  one  hundred  and  thirteen  show  a  population  between  two  and 
five  thousand  each,  and  the  rest  are  below  two  thousand — some  of  them 
the  merest-  villages  together  with  the  outlying  country.  In  Wuerttem- 
berg  there  are  very  few  isolated  dwellings,  even  in  the  rural  districts. 
In  this  report,  the  Gemeinde  is  usually  referred  to  as  the  "commune," 
"community,"  or  "locality." 

An  interesting  geographical  fact  is  that  Wuerttemberg  contains  within 
its  area  several  "enclaves,"  or  bits  of  territory  belonging  to  neighboring 
German  states,  which  in  turn  have  enclaves  subject  to  Wuerttemberg  rule. 
The  kingdom  contains  three  bits  of  land  belonging  to  Baden,  with  a  total 
of  2934  acres  and  1152  inhabitants;  belonging  to  Hohenzollern,  6330 
acres,  in  three  divisions,  with  1042  inhabitants.  Baden  encloses  four 
Wuerttemberg  spots,  with  2735  acres  and  240  people;  Hohenzollern  has 
four  Wuerttemberg  areas  with  6605  acres  and  1291  inhabitants.  Two 
other  bits  of  land  are  under  the  co-dominion  of  Prussia  and  Wuerttemberg, 
and  of  Baden  and  Wuerttemberg,  respectively. 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    IMPROVEMENT 
SCHOOLS   OF   WUERTTEMBERG 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  PLACE  OF  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  KINGDOM 

In  the  old  German  song  which  Longfellow  has  aptly  rendered 
into  English,  a  Swabian  peasant — doubtless  from  Wuerttem- 
berg — bespeaks  happiness  for  the  "stout  and  hardy  men  and 
the  nut-brown  maidens  there."  The  measure  of  contentment 
claimed  for  the  rugged  tillers  of  the  soil  is  found  in  all  walks  of 
life  in  that  snug  little  kingdom;  for  Wuerttemberg  is  the  king- 
dom of  contentment.  Other  lands  may  have  towns  that  are 
bigger  and  busier  than  those  here  seen — the  true  story  of  the 
development  of  New  York  or  Chicago  outclasses  the  fairy  tales 
of  seven-leagued  progress — but  few  countries  show  either  town 
or  land  where  the  conditions  not  inherent  in  soil,  climate,  or 
location  are  more  generally  hopeful  than  in  Wuerttemberg. 
This  notwithstanding  certain  native  disadvantages.  The  coun- 
try is  comparatively  poor  in  natural  resources.  Though  rich  in 
salt  mines,  there  is  a  lack  of  coal  for  manufacturing  purposes 
and  only  a  scant  supply  of  "white  coal,"  otherwise  water- 
power.  Here  are  no  bonanza  farms  or  wealth-producing  El 
Dorados.  In  many  a  case  the  waste  of  a  Kansas  wheat-farm 
would  make  a  merry  harvest  for  the  Wuerttemberg  peasant. 

Industrial  competition  is  intrenched  on  all  sides  without  the 
kingdom.  Furthermore,  the  property-owner  may  not  look  to 
the  earnings  of  the  government  railroads  to  reduce  his  taxes, 
for  a  glance  at  the  map  of  Europe  reveals  the  unfortunate 
situation  of  the  country  with  regard  to  transcontinental  traffic, 
and  explains  why  the  annual  profits  are  only  three  per  cent.,  or 
about  enough  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  railroad  debt,  whereas 
the  Prussian  railroads  yield  an  annual  revenue  of  six  or  seven 
per  cent.  The  Wuerttemberg  system  is  overbuilt,  and  is  at 
the  mercy  of  the  larger  Reichslaender .  Bismarck  at  one  time 

7  [357 


8  Teachers  College  Record  [3  58 

nearly  succeeded  in  consolidating  the  states'  railroads  into  an 
Imperial  system.  But  the  South  dissented  from  the  plan,  and 
now  the  conditions  are  reversed.  The  South,  and  especially 
Wuerttemberg,  is  the  victim  of  traffic  discrimination.  Neither 
is  there  much  tourist  traffic  here,  at  least  to  such  extent  as 
maintains  many  an  European  town  through  the  lavish  ex- 
penditures of  Americans.  While  speaking  of  revenues,  let  us 
mention  the  chief  proprietary  source  of  income  for  the  kingdom. 
Here  is  a  wonderful  illustration  of  that  statesmanlike  prevision 
that  has  put  the  country  on  an  economic  basis  that  is  unassail- 
able, and  which,  in  substance,  is  the  theme  of  my  writing.  The 
government  forests,  in  1904,  covered  an  area  of  483,421.5  acres. 
When  all  expenses  of  maintenance  had  been  paid,  there  was  a  net 
revenue  from  the  forests  in  that  year  of  $2,701,587.25.  And 
that  without  impairing  their  value  in  any  way.  Here  is  a 
regard  for  "woods  and  templed  hills"  that  is  not  only  patriotic, 
but  practical.  Such  forethought,  evinced  in  many  directions, 
has  made  Wuerttemberg  self-sustaining  and  independent.  If 
not  wealthy,  it  is  prosperous,  and  that  is  better.  The  govern- 
ment assists  and  protects  the  agriculturist  and  the  laborer  just 
as  it  aids  and  protects  the  manufacturer — helping  to  increase 
both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  output  of  factory  and 
field.  And  despite  the  drawbacks  already  cited,  despite  the 
cumbersome  traditions  of  court  and  caste  that  prevail,  despite 
the  awkward  alliance  of  church  and  state,  and  other  inherited 
encumbrances,  the  various  elements  of  society  co-operate  to  a 
degree  not  found  in  some  democracies.  Study  at  close  hand 
shows  that  problems  of  common  interest,  whether  relating  to 
social,  commercial,  agricultural,  or  industrial  needs,  have  been 
met  in  a  statesmanlike  manner. 

Upon  investigation  the  industries  of  Wuerttemberg  are 
found  to  be  surprisingly  diversified  and  prosperous.  As  we  in- 
spect the  numerous  towns  that  cluster  in  the  winding  valleys, 
we  are  to  become  convinced  that  the  Wuerttemberg  workman 
is  doing  his  full  share  for  the  German  industrial  advance,  an  ad- 
vance that  is  attracting  the  attention  of  the  world  and  is  even 
putting  the  English  competitor  on  the  street.  The  cleverest 
Yankee  inventions  are  readily  imitated  by  the  German  man- 
ufacturer. On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  rapidly  increasing 
exportation  to  America,  or  to  rival  markets,  of  a  vast  quantity 


359]       The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom       9 

of  Wuerttemberg  products,  of  the  kind  wherein  superior  work- 
manship is,  on  the  whole,  the  essential  quality.  The  Declared 
Export  Returns  of  the  various  consuls  at  Stuttgart  supply 
abundant  evidence  of  this  fact.  Stuttgart  stands  next  to 
Leipzig  as  a  German  publishing  centre,  and  its  products  are 
exported  annually  to  the  extent  of  millions.  But  it  is  not  in 
artistic  printing  alone  that  Wuerttemberg  excels.  It  is  made 
clear  by  the  Imperial  Statistics,  verified  by  our  personal  in- 
vestigations, that  Wuerttemberg  is  more  than  holding  its  own 
among  the  German  states  in  the  production  of  machinery  and 
implements,  in  the  textile,  wood  and  metal  working  industries, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  instruments  and  art  materials, 
and  of  paper,  leather,  and  rubber  goods.  When  it  is  observed 
that  Wuerttemberg  is  also  producing  its  share  of  the  agricultural 
output  of  the  Empire,  at  the  same  time  furnishing  its  full  quota 
of  25,000  men  to  the  Imperial  army,  what  the  industrial  achieve- 
ment means,  in  the  face  of  natural  disadvantages,  becomes 
clear.  It  means  that  the  Wuerttemberg  workman  has  taken 
his  place  in  the  front  rank  of  that  industrial  army  that  is  fairly 
started  on  a  conquest  of  the  world  of  trade.  No  one  in  posses- 
sion of  the  facts  will  deny  that  this  campaign  has  been  well 
planned,  or  that  Germany  is  making  rapid  progress  in  this 
direction.  England  has  already  been  successfully  invaded,  and 
the  "practical  Yankee"  set  at  naught.  Take  this  illustration 
as  one  of  many:  the  single  item  of  machinery  and  tools.  Ger- 
many's sales  to  the  United  States  have  doubled  in  the  five 
years  from  1900  to  1905.  Meanwhile,  American  sales  to  Ger- 
many, in  this  line,  are  now  about  one- third  of  the  totals  of  five 
years  ago.  For  the  same  period,  Germany  now  sends  to  Eng- 
land twice  as  much  finished  products,  receiving  only  two-thirds 
the  former  imports.  To  Sweden,  Denmark,  Argentine,  and 
Chile,  Germany  now  sends  double  the  quantity  of  machinery 
and  tools  exported  five  years  ago,  while  to  China  it  sends  five 
times  the  former  amount,  and  to  Canada  four  and  to  Portugal 
three  times  the  quantity  sold  in  1900.  In  the  case  of  all  other 
countries  there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  of  trade. 

Our  consuls,  importers,  and  manufacturers  who  are  in  touch 
with  the  situation  seem  to  have  agreed  that  this  successful 
German  invasion  of  the  world's  markets  is  the  logical  outcome 
of  the  greater  average  efficiency  of  her  workmen.  An  analysis 


io  Teachers  College  Record  [360 

of  what  Wuerttemberg  has  done  toward  securing  this  high 
vantage  ground  gives  the  keynote  of  progress  for  the  whole 
German  industrial  movement,  and  is  the  more  fruitful  since 
the  kingdom  has  this  very  year  embodied  the  results  of  over 
three-quarters  of  a  century  of  experience  with  industrial  im- 
provement 1  schools  (Gewerbliche  Fortbildungsschulen — industrial 
"continuation  schools")  in  a  remarkable  bit  of  legislation,  to  be 
described  in  detail  later.  The  industrial  and  commercial  im- 
provement schools  of  Wuerttemberg  are  designed  to  give  a 
broad  vocational  training  to  boys  and  girls  of  fourteen  to  eighteen 
years  who  have  left  the  common  schools  at  the  end  of  the  com- 
pulsory period  (six  to  fourteen),  as  nearly  all  do,  and  have  gone 
to  work.2  This  training  forms  a  basis  for  greater  efficiency  and  for 
industrial  and  commercial  intelligence.  Instruction  has  hitherto 
been  given  on  Sundays  or  holidays  or  in  the  evening,  but  under 
the  new  law  will  be  given  in  the  daytime  on  week-days.  The 
schools  attract  older  workingmen,  as  well  as  apprentices.  One 
evening,  when  I  was  conversing  with  the  director  of  the  Stuttgart 
industrial  improvement  school,  a  man  fifty-two  years  of  age 
entered  the  office  and  enrolled  for  his  thirtieth  half-year  in  the 
institution.  I  talked  with  many  who  had  been  regular  in 
attendance  for  ten  or  a  dozen  years.  When  schools  attract  and 
hold  students  in  this  way,  it  is  evident  that  they  have  something 
vital  to  offer,  and  that  this  belief  is  shared  by  the  masses.  It 

1  Throughout,  I  have  by  preference  employed  the  term  industrial, 
commercial,  or  general  "improvement"  schools,  in  lieu  of  the  expression 
"continuation"    schools.     The    Fortbildungsschulen    in    which     general 
subjects  (that  is,  mainly  the  "four  R's  " — reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
religion)   were  taught  originated  before  the  vocational   (industrial  and 
commercial)  Fortbildungsschulen.     In  the  case  of  the  former  there  was 
a  real  "continuation"  of  the  work  done  in  the  common  schools.     This  is 
hardly  so  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  vocational  Fortbildungsschulen; 
and  many  Germans  are  not  satisfied  with  the  term  that  has  been  in  vogue. 
In  our  language   "improvement    schools" — qualified  by  the  adjective 
"industrial,"  "commercial,  "  or  "general" — seems  better,  and  moreover 
a  notable  precedent  for  its  use  is  found  in  an  important  series  of  English 
special  reports  on  German  schools. 

2  The  German  Imperial  law  prohibits  altogether  the  regular  employment 
of  children  under  twelve  in  the  industries,  and  permits  their  employment 
when  above  that  age  only  under  the  severest  restrictions  as  to  hours  of 
labor,  factory  conditions,  and  compliance  with  the  compulsory  education 
laws.     A  great  many  go  to  work  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 


361]     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom        i  T 

also  becomes  clear,  with  regard  to  schools  in  general,  why 
for  many  years  the  Wuerttemberg  records  have  shown  no 
perceptible  traces  of  illiteracy  in  the  kingdom. 

Wuerttemberg,  in  area  and  population  comparable  to  New 
Jersey,  had  in  1905  two  hundred  and  forty- three  industrial 
and  commercial  improvement  schools,  public  drawing  schools, 
and  "women's  work"  schools  (Frauenarbeitschuleri)  scattered 
throughout  the  kingdom,  with  a  total  of  twenty-eight  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  seventy-four  students.  One  hundred 
and  fifty  of  the  institutions  were  industrial  improvement 
schools  for  young  men, — twenty-two  compulsory,  by  local 
option,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  non-compulsory, — 
attended  by  18,535  students  (1349  +  17,186);  four  were  com- 
mercial improvement  schools — two  compulsory  and  two  op- 
tional— with  a  total  enrolment  of  1245  (225  +  1020);  forty-two 
were  industrial  drawing  schools,  with  894  pupils  on  the  rosters; 
fifteen  were  industrial  improvement  schools  for  girls  (or  female 
departments  in  the  industrial  improvement  schools  for  men) 
with  1042  in  attendance;  and  thirty-two  were  "trades  schools" 
for  girls  and  women,  with  6858  on  the  lists.  Industrial  drawing 
was  taught  in  these  schools  by  six  hundred  and  fifty-four 
specialists,  and  the  remaining  subjects  by  nine  hundred  and 
fifty- two  instructors.  The  state  gave  aid  to  the  schools  to  the 
extent  of  $73,500,  of  which  $66,500  was  for  the  industrial  and 
commercial  improvement  schools  alone.  The  growth  of  the  two 
last  named  institutions  during  the  past  forty-five  years  is 
indicated  by  the  following  statistics:  In  1861— '62,  they  were 
found  in  84  localities,  with  7273  pupils;  in  i87i-'72,  155  places, 
9763  students;  in  i88i-'82,  153  communes,  attendance  10,225; 
in  i89i-'92,  188  and  17,250;  in  i9oi-'o2,  239  (of  these  ,  104 
were  schools  for  drawing  only)  and  21,054  students;  at  present, 
fully  30,000  students,  including  those  in  the  "women's  work" 
("trade")  schools. 

The  new  law — to  be  in  full  operation  in  1909 — will  add  a  still 
greater  number  to  the  lists.  It  compels  all  localities  (Gemeinderi) , 
having  for  a  period  of  three  successive  years  at  least  forty  youths 
under  eighteen  years  of  age  engaged  in  industrial  or  commercial 
pursuits,  to  establish  an  industrial  or  commercial  school,  and  to 
maintain  it  as  long  as  the  number  of  such  youths  employed  does 
not  fall  below  thirty  for  three  years  in  succession.  The  term 


12  Teachers  College  Record  [362 

"commercial  or  industrial  pursuits"  is  given  the  widest  possible 
scope  in  Wuerttemberg,  and  takes  into  account  not  only  the 
factory  hand  and  the  counting-house  assistant,  but  the  day 
laborer,  the  grocer's  clerk,  and  the  errand  boy.  The  law  pro- 
vides for  the  compulsory  attendance  of  all  young  workmen  (a 
stipulation  formerly  left  to  the  localities  to  decide,  in  virtue  of 
Imperial  laws  based  on  a  North  German  ordinance  of  1869). 
The  chief  objective  point  of  the  law  is  to  furnish  opportunity 
for  instruction  during  the  work-days, — instead  of  evenings, 
Sundays,  or  holidays,  as  before.  The  minimum  number  of  hours 
per  year  is  to  be  two  hundred  and  eighty.  The  schools  are  to  be 
organized  more  strictly  than  ever  along  vocational  lines,  and 
instructors  specially  prepared  through  long  courses  of  training 
are  to  be  put  in  charge  everywhere.  The  courses  will  extend  over 
a  term  of  three  years,  instead  of  two,  as  formerly.1 

Besides  the  schools  already  mentioned,  Wuerttemberg  has  an 
unusual  number  of  other  state-aided  institutions  and  special 
courses,  of  all  grades,  in  which  vocational  instruction  is  given. 
This  in  addition  to  a  general  educational  system  that  is  as  well 
developed  as  any  in  the  world,  if  not  better.  Peculiar  to  the 
system  is  a  great  variety  of  types  of  schools,  each  concentrated 
upon  a  special  aim.  The  vocational  schools  have  been  more 
practical  than  in  other  states,  and  have  enrolled  a  higher  per- 
centage of  the  population.  Wuerttemberg  was  the  first  to  make 
vocational  education  compulsory  by  state  law  with  day  instruc- 
tion for  all  apprentices  engaged  in  industry  or  commerce. 
Wuerttemberg' s  classical  schools  have  long  been  more  classical 
and  its  "realistic"  schools  stronger  in  mathematics  than  those 
elsewhere  in  Germany.  Its  system  of  schools  for  all  the  people 
is  the  oldest  in  the  world.  There  is  a  considerable  number  of 
"Latin"  schools  in  the  kingdom — the  direct  descendants  of  the 
monastic  and  municipal  schools  of  the  middle  ages,  though  at 
present  modern  in  spirit  and  equipment.  Likewise  the  theolog- 
ical seminaries  are  the  continuation  of  the  old  monastic  schools, 
with  the  addition  of  modern  methods.  The  University  is  one  of 

T"  »  A  detailed  analysis  of  the  recent  legislation  for  the  industrial  im- 
provement schools — a  codification  of  experience  in  vocational  education 
that  is  now  the  model  for  all  Germany — is  postponed  to  Chapter  III. 
The  historical  growth  of  vocational  school  types  is  outlined  in  Chapter  II 
(abridged  for  the  present  use). 


363]     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom        1 3 

the  oldest  in  existence,  and  excels  in  the  theological  department. 
The  agricultural  college  is  the  oldest  in  Germany.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  Industrial  Museum  at  Stuttgart.  Also,  the 
pedagogical  exhibit  of  this  Museum  is  the  oldest  permanent 
exposition  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The  Sunday  schools  of 
Wuerttemberg  are  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  existence. 
Reutlingen,  in  Wuerttemberg,  had  the  first  "women's  work" 
school  in  Germany.  Wuerttemberg  has  done  much  more  than 
Prussia  for  the  education  of  women  through  state  initiative. 
Its  Technical  College  (or  Institute  of  Technology)  and  Royal 
Building  Trades  School  are  in  many  respects  admittedly  the 
best  in  Germany.  The  educational  system  is  unique,  too,  in 
the  fact  that  home  training  is  much  preferred  to  that  of  the 
kindergarten  for  the  earliest  years.  There  are  very  few  schools 
for  infants,  the  kindergarten  being  ordinarily  private,  not  in- 
cluded in  the  state  system,  and  only  rarely  considered  part  of 
of  a  city  system,  although  more  often  subsidized  by  the  latter. 

If  proof  of  the  general  efficiency  of  Wuerttemberg 's  educa- 
tional system  is  desired,  compare,  for  instance,  the  almost 
absolute  literacy1  of  the  kingdom  with  the  records  of  our  States 
highest  in  this  respect — those  in  the  West.  Iowa  and  Nebraska 
headed  our  honor  roll  in  1900,  with  a  percentage  of  illiteracy  of 
"only"  2.3  per  cent.  Maine,  the  first  Eastern  State  in  the  list, 
came  eighteenth,  with  5.1  per  cent,  who  did  not  read  or  write. 
New  York  State  is  next,  with  5.5  per  cent. — New  York  County 
(Manhattan  and  the  Bronx)  8.1  per  cent. — while  Louisiana  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  list,  with  an  illiteracy  of  38.5  per  cent.  All 
make  a  poor  showing  in  the  statistics  of  general  culture  when 
put  side  by  side  with  Wuerttemberg.  Or,  if  you  believe  the 
comparison  on  the  basis  of  literacy  unfair,  because  of  our  colored 
population  and  annual  accessions  of  illiterate  immigrants,  com- 
pare in  relation  to  the  population  the  state-aided  schools  and 
attendance  in  Wuerttemberg  with  all  the  schools,  public  and 
private,  of  any  state  in  the  Union.  Compare  also  the  "clock- 
work" school-attendance  of  Wuerttemberg,  and  the  training, 
length  of  service,  and  general  efficiency  of  the  teachers,  with  the 

1  Out  of  11,000  recruits  for  the  army  examined  in  Wuerttemberg  each 
year,  only  three  individuals,  on  the  average,  are  found  to  be  illiterate. 
These  are  invariably  Germans  from  other  states,  or  from  out-of-the- 
way  colonies. 


14  Teachers  College  Record  [364 

conditions  in  any  American  community  and  see  just  how  far 
Old  World  Wuerttemberg  is  behind  New  World  America  in 
these  particulars.  Then  observe  what  Wuerttemberg  is  doing 
to  build,  maintain  and  develop  vocational  schools.  The  inquiry 
furnishes  food  for  reflection. 

Before  giving  the  table  of  attendance  in  the  various  types 
of  schools  in  Wuerttemberg,  an  introductory  word  is  perhaps 
required  for  the  purpose  of  differentiating  the  vocational  improve- 
ment schools  previously  mentioned  from  the  general  improve- 
ment schools  (Allgemeine  Fortbildungsschulen — "continuation 
schools")  and  the  Sunday-schools  ("Sunday  continuation"). 
For  some  years  all  the  Wuerttemberg  localities  have  been  under 
the  obligation  to  establish  general  improvement  schools  with 
instruction  in  religion  and  the  common  branches  for  male  pupils 
who  have  finished  the  compulsory  common  school  course,  and 
also  for  female  pupils  where  possible.  Students  of  both  sexes 
who  are  through  with  the  common  schools  are  obligated  to 
attend  the  general  improvement  schools  for  a  period  of  two  years, 
and  for  a  total  of  eighty  hours  a  year,  to  be  given,  ordinarily,  at  the 
rate  of  two  hours  a  week,  on  work-days  (usually  evenings).  In 
the  majority  of  the  agricultural  districts,  four  hours  a  week  for 
twenty  weeks  in  the  winter — and  in  a  few  cases  instruction  on 
Sunday — is  permitted.  Exempt  from  attendance  are  those 
who  are  enrolled  in  a  higher  institution,  or  in  a  vocational  im- 
provement school.  In  the  event  that  for  local  reasons  the 
community  is  excused  from  the  letter  of  the  law,  a  Sunday 
school — like  the  week-day  improvement  school  with  instruction 
in  the  common  branches  as  well  as  in  religion — must  be  sub- 
stituted. Attendance  here  is  compulsory  for  three  years, — in 
communes  with  a  single  day-school  teacher,  for  only  twenty 
hours  a  year,  and  in  those  with  two  or  more,  for  forty  hours  a 
year.  In  i9o$-'o6,  there  were  general  improvement  schools 
in  1969  Wuerttemberg  localities,  with  2273  "rooms"  and  37,770 
pupils  (22,682  males,  15,088  females).  Of  the  2273  "classes," 
692  had  the  instruction  spread  over  forty  weeks,  and  1581 
during  the  winter  semester  only,  in  double  measure.  On  work- 
days, 1891  classes  were  taught;  on  Sundays,  123;  on  both,  259. 
Day  classes  were  749  in  number;  evening  classes,  1302;  partly 
day  and  partly  evening  classes,  222.  Sunday  schools  for  boys 
were  found  in  182  places,  with  186  "classes"  and  3119  pupils; 


3  65]     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom        1 5 

for  girls,  in  1593  localities,  with  1646  divisions  and  32,345  pupils. 
Total  number  of  Sunday  school  pupils,  35,464. 

With  all  due  respect  for  numbers,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  general  improvement  school  of  Wuerttemberg  is  rather  a 
sorry  institution  in  comparison  with  the  vocational  improvement 
schools.  And  the  same  thing  is  true  in  those  German  states 
which  require  a  longer  period  of  attendance  yearly.  However, 
their  social  value  is  considerable,  and  they  do  help  a  few  ambi- 
tious persons,  and  even  catch  a  few  black  sheep  and  give  them 
enough  mental  baggage  to  enable  them  to  count  as  literate. 
But  in  Wuerttemberg,  with  a  total  of  only  eighty  hours  a  year 
(making  about  thirty -two  average  school  days  in  the  two  years) , 
there  is  very  little  time  in  which  to  accomplish  the  announced 
aim,  viz.:  "to  impart  the  knowledge  necessary  for  practical  life." 
In  the  industrial  improvement  school  it  is  different.  There  you 
have  a  total  of  840  hours  in  three  years  (or  practically  two  school 
days  a  week),  religion  and  the  purely  cultural  subjects  are 
eliminated,  and  instruction  in  the  students'  own  field  is  given, 
as  far  as  possible  by  practical  workers  of  distinction  and  with 
special  ability  and  training.  Meanwhile  the  student  has  the 
chance  to  put  the  theory  he  acquires  to  the  test  in  the  daily 
work. 

THE  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  IN  WUERTTEMBERG 

Total  population  2,300,330  in  December,  1905.  Area  considerably 
less  than  that  of  New  Jersey.  The  figures  below  are  for  actual  school 
attendance.  In  the  case  of  elementary  and  secondary  education  the 
statistics  are  those  of  January  i,  1906.  The  others  are  mostly  for  1906, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  vocational  improvement  schools,  for  1905. 

A.   In  the  Elementary  Schools  System: 

In  Kindergartens  and  Infant  Schools  (not  state 
institutions,  and  almost  exclusively  private): 

a.  In  Stuttgart 3 ,000 

b.  Elsewhere,  estimated 3,006 

In  "People's"  (Volks-)  Schools  (ages  6  to  14) ...    319,515 

In  the  Six  State  Normals  for  Men 593 

In  the  Preparatory  Departments  of  Men's  Nor- 
mals    507 


1 6                         Teachers  College  Record  [366 

In  the  Two  State  Normals  for  Girls 102 

In  the  Four  Private  Normals 43 

In  the  General  Improvement  Schools  (1969 

localities) 37, 770 

In  the  Sunday  Improvement  Schools  (for  the 

common  branches) 35,464 


Total 400, 


ooo 


B.    In  the  Secondary  Schools  System: 

In  the  Elementarschulen  (prep,  schools — ages  six 

to^eight — for  the  secondary  system) 3,609 

In  the  91  "Gymnasial' '  (classical)  and  ' 'Real- 
istic- Gymnasial "  (modern  Latin)  Schools: 

In  the  Four  Protestant  Theological  Seminaries.  .  186 

In    the    Fourteen    Gymnasien    (ages    eight    to 

eighteen) 4,305 

In  the  Pro-Gymnasium  (or  abbreviated  Gym- 
nasium) at  Oehringen 123 

In  the  Four  Real-Gymnasien  (Latin — mathematics 

— modern),  ages  nine  to  eighteen 1.932 

In  the  Five  Real-Progymnasien  (or  abbreviated 
Real-Gymnasien) 783 

In  the  Fifty-eight  "Latin  Schools"  (ages  nine  to 
fourteen),  One  Real-Latin  School,  and  Four 

Latin^Divisions  in  Real-Schools 2,233 

In  the  Ninety-two  "Realistic"  Schools: 

In  the  Ten  Oberrealschulen  (giving  a  nine- years 

modern-scientific  course) 5,457 

In  the  Six  Realschulen  with  two  higher  classes. .        1,619 

In  the  Twelve  Realschulen  with  one  higher  class . .        2,285 

In   the   Sixty-three   Realschulen  without   added 

classes  (giving  a  five- years  course) 2,973 

In  the  Buergerschule  ("municipal  school"  of 
higher  rank  than  the  common  schools)  at 
Stuttgart i  ,402 

In  the  "realistic"  class  of  the  Realgymnasium  at 

Gmuend 125 

In  the  Higher  Girls'  Schools: 

a.   Thirteen  "Public" 4,043 


367]     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom  1 7 

b.    Six  "  Private  " 929 

In  the  Girls'  Higher  Normal 73 

Total 32»<>77 

C.    In    the    Vocational    (Industrial    and    Commercial) 
Improvement  Schools: 

In  Industrial  Improvement  Schools J8,535 

In  Commercial  Improvement  Schools 1,245 

In  Industrial  Drawing  Schools 894 

In  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  and  Divisions 

for  Girls  and  Women 1,042 

In  "Women's  Work"  Schools 6,858 


Total 28,574 

D.  In   the   State    University  at   Tuebingen    (Winter, 

1,407  ;  Summer,  1,714) *2,i87 

E.  In  the  Higher  Art  Schools: 

In  the  Conservatory  of  Music  at  Stuttgart 490 

In  the  Academy  for  the  Plastic  Arts  in  Stuttgart 

(W.,  ioi;S.,  97) *i27 

In  the  Industrial  Art  School  in  Stuttgart  (W.,  129 ; 

S-,  97) *iS5 

In  the  Industrial  Art  Workshop  at  Stuttgart  (W., 

43;  S.,  So) *57 

Total 829 

F.  In  the  Agricultural  Schools: 

In  the  Agricultural  Institute  in  Hohenheim  (W., 

128;  S.,  108) *i52 

In  the  Veterinary  College  in  Stuttgart  (W.,  107; 

S.,  97) *i4Q 

In  the  Agricultural  Winter  Schools  of  Ellwangen, 
Kirchberg,  and  Ochsenhausen 36 

In  the  Vintner's  School  at  Weinsberg  (19  regular, 

87  special) 106 

In  Eight  Agricultural  Winter  Schools 292 

In  the  Gardening  School  of  Hohenheim 12 

*  Estimated  from  detailed  attendance  at  the  Technical  College  for  two 
semesters. 


1 8  Teachers  College  Record  [368 

In  Special  Fruit-raising  Courses 84 

In  Pomological  Courses 30 

In  the  Four  Housekeeping  Schools 65 

In  Three  Courses  in  Agriculture 29 

Total 946 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  are  three  Agricultural 
Improvement  Schools,  and  Five  Practice  Shops  for  Farriers. 

G.   In  the  Technical  College  (Hochschule)  at  Stuttgart . .        1,381 
H.  In  the  Building  Trades  School  at  Stuttgart  (S.  566; 

W.,  884) *996 

I.     In  the  Technicum  for  the  Textile  industries,   at 

Reutlingen 149 

J.    In  the  Technical  School  for  Skilled  Mechanics  and 

Watchmaking,  at  Schwenningen 69 

K.  In  the  Weaving  Schools  of  Heidenheim,  Sindelfingen, 

and  Laichingen 94 

In  the  Weaving  Workshop  at  Sontheim 92 

In  the  Embroidery  School  at  Wolf schlugen 25 

In  the  Lacemaking  School  of  Koengen 30 

L.    In  ttie  Tanners'  School  of  Metzingen 8 

M.  In    the    Technical    School    for    Book    Printing    at 

Stuttgart 108 

N.  In  the  Commercial  College  at  Stuttgart ,.  125 

0.  "Practical-Technical"  Courses  for  master- workmen 
in  a  variety  of  industries — given  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and 

Commerce 276 

In   "Theoretical-Technical"   Courses,   under  the 

same  auspices 35 

Total    in    Special    Industrial    and    Commercial 

Schools  and  Courses 3.388 

Besides  the  above  there  are  a  few  private  industrial  schools — 
about  a  half-dozen  good  ones — in  connection  with  large  manu- 
facturing enterprises  for  the  most  part.  A  few  courses  for 
apprentices  are  also  given  independently  under  the  auspices  of 
unions  and  guilds. 


369]     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom        19 

P.   In  Orphan  Homes,  Reformatories  and  Schools  for 

Defectives : 

In  Orphan  Homes 984 

In  State  Institutions  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. . .  227 

In  Private  Institutions  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb . .  440 

In  Schools  for  the  Blind 196 

Other    Defectives     (in    Public    Schools:     1,086, 

Private  Schools:  n) 1,097 

In  Reformatories  and  Rescue  Homes  for  Children  2,333 

Total * S»277 

RECAPITULATION 

In  the  Elementary  Schools  System 400,000 

In  the  Secondary  Schools  System 32>°77 

In  the  State  University 2,187 

In  the  Higher  Art  Schools 829 

In  the  Agricultural  Schools 946 

In  the  Institutions  for  Orphans,  Defectives,  and  Way- 
ward Children 5»277 

In  the  Industrial  and  Commercial  Improvement  Schools  28,574 

In  the  Other  Vocational  Schools  and  Courses 3*388 

Total 473.278 

The  few  remaining  figures  for  private  schools  not  mentioned 
above  would  not  make  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  result. 
Figures  preceded  by  an  asterisk  (*)  are  estimated  in  accordance 
with  the  detailed  attendance  at  the  Technical  College  for  two 
semesters — a  very  rough  approximation  is  the  result,  but  the 
numbers  concerned  are  small.  It  is  because  the  attendance 
at  the  higher  institutions  of  Wuerttemberg  is  tabulated  officially 
by  half-years  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  exact  number  of 
individuals  enrolled  during  the  year,  as  would  be  reported  in 
the  year-book  of  an  American  university.  A  careful  com- 
parison of  the  semester  lists  of  the  Technical  College,  for  instance, 
shows  that  614  regular  and  14  extension  students  are  included 
in  the  statement  for  both  semesters  under  consideration.  The 
total  enrolment  for  the  year,  then,  reduces  to  1031  regulars  and 
350  extension  students.  Further  analysis  shows  the  drawing 


20  Teachers  College  Record  [370 

power  of  the  institution  abroad — a  condition  characteristic  of 
all  the  higher  institutions  of  Wuerttemberg.  During  the  winter 
semester  cited,  209  students  came  from  other  German  states, 
106  from  Prussia  alone,  and  66  from  foreign  countries:  during 
the  summer  half-year,  190  came  from  other  German  states, 
109  from  Prussia,  and  62  from  abroad.  Two  of  the  regular 
students  for  the  year  were  women,  and  the  extension  courses 
enrolled  196  women  in  the  winter  and  34  in  the  summer.  These 
figures  are  for  the  Technical  College  alone. 

The  table  given  above  does  not  indicate  the  entire  range  of 
commercial  or  industrial  instruction.  Commercial  subjects,  for 
instance,  may  be  pursued  in  the  University  and  in  certain  of 
the  higher  schools  ("realistic").  Nearly  all  the  girls  enrolled 
in  the  common  ("people's")  and  higher  girls'  schools  are 
instructed  in  manual  subjects.  In  the  common  schools  this 
department  is  called  an  "Industry  School,"  and  a  few  boys  are 
also  admitted  to  it.  Other  industrial  aids  are  the  lectures  and 
personal  assistance  of  the  official  travelling  instructor  (Wander- 
lehrer)  of  the  Central  Bureau,  and  the  intelligent  help  furnished 
through  the  industrial  museums  headed  by  the  National  Indus- 
trial Museum  at  Stuttgart,  and  by  means  of  industrial  exposi- 
tions, both  state  and  local.  One  hundred  and  eighty-five 
apprenticeship  workshops  are  subsidized.  Special  laboratory  aid 
is  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  merchants  and  manufacturers 
of  the  land.  Free  advice  is  furnished  by  the  experts  of  the 
Central  Bureau,  in  close  relations  with  the  unions  of  employers 
and  employed.  Finally,  a  valuable  industrial  journal  (weekly, 
furnished  to  unions  at  the  club  rate  of  only  $.24  a  year)  has  been 
issued  by  the  Central  Bureau  since  January  i,  1849;  financial 
assistance  is  extended  to  worthy  industries;  and  stipends  are 
granted  to  young  and  old  for  industrial  investigations. 

A  glance  at  the  statistical  summary  of  school  attendance  in 
Wuerttemberg  discloses  the  fact  that  over  twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population  goes  to  school  each  year — a  remarkable 
showing  when  you  remember  that  tradition  in  Germany  has 
only  lately  permitted  of  the  secondary  and  higher  education  of 
women,  and  that  to  a  very  restricted  degree.  Nearly  all  the 
school  population  had  direct  vocational  instruction  for  a  part 
of  the  time  at  least,  and  about  ten  per  cent,  of  all  the  students 
were  in  purely  vocational  schools.  The  facts  give  rise  to  certain 


3  7 1  j     The  Place  of  Vocational  Training  in  the  Kingdom        2 1 

questions.  Subsequent  chapters  will  show  the  historical  neces- 
sity for  these  schools,  and  their  development.  Also  the  part 
played  by  the  state,  community,  and  by  private  individuals  in 
their  organization  and  maintenance ;  the  attitude  of  individuals 
and  of  employers  and  labor  unions;  the  important  problem  of 
securing  efficient  vocational  teachers  as  met  by  Wuerttemberg ; 
how  it  is  that  the  kingdom  has  come  to  take  an  advanced  position 
in  favor  of  compulsory  attendance,  and  in  favor  of  day  instruction 
as  opposed  to  evening  schools ;  how  in  common  with  other  Euro- 
pean nations  it  has  been  driven  to  establish  an  agency  essentially 
separate  from  the  ordinary  educational  administrations,  for  the 
direction  of  the  industrial  schools . 1  For  history  clearly  impeaches 
the  ordinary  educational  administrations  for  the  failure  to  fur- 
nish adequate  instruction  in  the  industries.  It  is  European  ex- 
perience that  they  even  fail  in  many  cases  to  do  all  that  lies 
within  their  power  in  this  regard  until  forced  to  adopt  a  practical 
attitude  by  the  fact  that  the  major  responsibility  for  providing 
such  instruction  has  been  placed  upon  another  ministry  (in- 
dustrial or  commercial)  or  body  closely  in  touch  with  the 
industries  and  the  commercial  needs  of  the  country.  As 
evidence  of  the  non-practical  tendencies  of  the  schools  in  our 
own  land  also,  witness  the  general  failure,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  industries,  of  instruction  in  drawing  or  manual  training, — 
subjects  introduced  originally  out  of  highly  practical  considera- 
tions.2 Immediately,  however,  they  came  under  the  sway  of 
a  body  of  cultural  theory  that  is  very  good  in  its  way,  but 
has  been  allowed  to  defeat  the  original  purpose  of  the  voca- 
tional training.  Unfortunately,  too,  the  field  of  vocational  in- 
struction in  the  United  States  has  been  largely  under  the 
control  of  a  heterogenous  variety  of  organizations  and  of 
correspondence  schools — the  ordinary  schools  having  shifted  the 
responsibility. 

1  Under  separate  ministries  in  the  majority  of  the  larger  States  of  Eu- 
rope, the  lower  industrial  schools  are  nominally  under  the  educational 
ministries  in  Wuerttemberg  and  Austria,  but  are  quite  as  much  under  the 
control  of  the  industrial  departments  (Interior  Ministry)  through  their  in- 
fluence in  appointing  members  of  the  central  vocational  school  boards. 

2  Cf .  the  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  and 
Technical  Education. 


22  Teachers  College  Record  [372 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  RISE  OF  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 

The  tendency  toward  state  aid  in  financing  industrial 
schools — not  only  the  higher  technical  institutions,  but  those  of 
elementary  grade,  for  the  common  workman — has  received  its 
greatest  impetus  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  especially  during  the  past  thirty  years.  So  far  as  the 
European  states  are  concerned,  this  tendency  amounts  to  an 
established  custom  that  finds  greater  favor  with  the  increasing 
years.  In  France,  Austria,  Hungary,  Belgium,  England,  the 
German  states,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  such  action  is  looked  upon 
as  a  national  duty.  Even  in  the  United  States,  precedents  of 
the  kind  are  found,  both  in  the  national  grants  of  lands  and  of 
money  for  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  and  in  state 
appropriations  to  these  and  to  special  technical  schools.  Not 
only  has  the  national  grant  been  used  for  the  maintenance  of 
such  a  higher  school  as  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, but  in  other  states  for  such  industrial  purposes  as  are 
subserved  by  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  and  by  the 
preparatory  departments  of  several  mechanical  colleges  in 
which  elementary  trades  instruction  is  given,  and  where  the 
total  enrolment  often  exceeds  that  of  the  mechanical  college 
proper.  The  recent  introduction  in  state  legislatures  of  bills 
providing  for  further  financial  aid  to  industrial  education  on  the 
part  of  the  states,  emphasizes  the  growth  of  a  well-established 
world  principle.  For  those  statesmen  who  have  long  held  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  body  politic  to  see  to  it  that  the  com- 
ponent units  of  the  state — individuals — are  fortified  for  their 
part  in  society  by  having  at  least  the  elements  of  a  general 
education,  are  coming  to  maintain  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state 
to  assist  in  equipping  all  for  their  practical  share  in  the  common 
life.  This  growing  attitude  is  a  natural  result  of  the  increasing 
complexity  of  modern  economic  conditions.  During  the  middle 
ages,  when  the  guilds  regulated  the  handicraft  trades,  state 
initiative  in  behalf  of  industrial  education  did  not  seem  neces- 
sary. Instruction  in  a  trade  was  given  by  the  master  in  whose 
house  the  apprentice  resided.  It  extended  over  a  long  term  of 
years,  and  was  broad  and  thorough,  covering  all  the  features  of 
the  trade.  The  apprentice  was  frequently  obliged  to  assist  the 


373]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  23 

master  workman  in  his  book-keeping  and  other  business,  hence 
instruction  of  a  general  nature  was  also  provided.  Further 
industrial  insight  was  obtained  when  the  apprentice  could  take 
his  place  as  a  full-fledged  member  of  the  fraternity,  an  honor 
much  coveted  and  hard  to  win.  In  many  a  thriving  "city- 
state"  of  the  early  modern  era  the  guilds  seemed  indispensable 
to  the  community.  However,  their  political  strength  proved 
to  be  their  weakness.  Ambitious  princes  fostered  independent 
industries  to  the  undoing  of  the  guilds.  The  elementary,  trivial 
and  Latin  schools,  introduced  and  encouraged  by  the  church, 
assumed  the  work  of  giving  instruction,  although  it  was  very 
limited  in  amount  and  did  not  concern  itself  with  vocational 
teaching.  In  the  face  of  the  competition  offered  by  the  stimulated 
industries  under  princely  patronage  the  guild  masters  were  often 
obliged  not  only  to  neglect  the  general  information  of  their 
apprentices,  but  to  limit  the  vocational  instruction  to  the  meagre 
necessities  of  the  moment.  With  the  introduction  of  piece- 
work, apprenticeship  failed  any  longer  to  furnish  an  all-around 
vocational  training.  Neither  were  there  any  other  agencies  for 
the  purpose. 

At  the  outset,  the  organization  of  special  schools  to  supply 
this  demand  for  a  broader  vocational  training  came  about 
slowly,  largely  through  private  initiative,  and  with  instruction 
mainly  on  Sunday.  At  first,  the  Sunday  schools  did  nothing 
more  than  to  continue  the  teaching  of  the  elementary  schools, 
or  to  supply  what  they  had  failed  to  give.  The  Sunday  school 
in  Wuerttemberg,  the  oldest  institution  of  its  kind  which  has 
had  a  continuous  existence,  was  outlined  in  the  church  ordinance 
of  1559.  The  scope  and  functions  of  Sunday  schools  were  more 
explicitly  set  forth  by  the  church  authorities  in  1695,  and  in 
1739,  these  schools  were  made  universally  compulsory  by  a 
synodal  order  which  stated  that  "all  young  people  must  attend 
the  Sunday  and  holiday  schools  until  the  time  of  their  marriage, 
so  that  they  will  neither  so  easily  forget  what  they  have  learned 
in  school,  nor  spend  the  leisure  of  Sundays  and  holidays  in  a 
sinful  manner. "  In  the  Sunday  schools  they  were  required  to 
"sing  a  sacred  song,  read  the  Bible,  repeat  the  Proverbs  and 
Psalms,  recite  from  the  catechism,  produce  their  compositions, 
read  a  letter,  and  then  close  with  a  prayer  and  the  benediction. " 
Arithmetic,  too,  was  soon  introduced  into  the  curriculum. 


24  Teachers  College  Record  [374 

But  important  as  the  Sunday  school  has  been  in  the  development 
of  industrial  training  in  Wuerttemberg,  it  was  nearly  a  hundred 
years  later,  when  the  schools  were  more  directly  under  the 
authority  of  the  state,  that  Sunday  schools  were  made  use  of  for 
such  instruction  in  that  kingdom.  The  general  school  regula- 
tions promulgated  in  1763  by  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  gave 
directions  for  the  building  of  Sunday  and  "repetition"  schools 
so  that  "the  masters  might  send  to  school  for  four  hours  a  week 
those  apprentices  who  did  not  have  the  necessary  knowledge  of 
reading,  writing,  and  religion, "  but  went  no  farther  in  providing 
vocational  instruction  than  did  the  earlier  Sunday  schools  of 
Wuerttemberg. 

While  the  great  educational  leaders  of  the  eighteenth  century 
strove  chiefly  for  the  advancement  of  general  culture,  and  while 
the  parochial  instruction  was  confined  to  narrow  limits,  a  few 
beginnings  of  vocational  training  were  undertaken,  both  on  the 
part  of  the  states  and  of  individuals  or  associations.  Austria, 
in  the  early  sixties  of  that  century  established  a  precedent  by 
sending  abroad  for  skilled  technicians  who  were  despatched  into 
the  provinces  to  visit  and  instruct  the  workers,  thereby  in- 
augurating the  "travelling  instruct orships "  (with  which  the 
duties  of  an  inspector  are  often  combined)  that  have  played  an 
important  part  in  industrial  training  in  several  European  states. 
Under  government  protection  a  "manufacturer's  drawing  school  " 
was  founded  in  Vienna  (1758),  a  lace-making  school  at  Prague 
(1767),  and  the  first  secular  drawing  school  in  Hungary  (1770),  the 
Royal  Drawing  School  of  Buda-Pesth.  At  about  this  time  Austria 
decreed  that  "all  the  royal  cities  and  market  towns  shall  main- 
tain spinning  schools  throughout  the  winter,  and  the  children 
of  tradespeople  shall  be  obliged  to  visit  them  from  the  seventh 
to  the  fifteenth  year  of  their  age.  " 

In  Germany,  it  was  through  private  initiative  that  the  first 
industrial  school  was  established  in  the  north — in  Hamburg 
(1767), — at  first  for  architectural  drawing  alone.  Its  pro- 
moters were  the  members  of  the  local  "Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  the  Industrial  and  Useful  Arts."  The  school 
gradually  extended  its  course,  and  grew  in  enrolment  from 
12  individuals  in  the  year  of  its  founding,  to  3256  in  1892. 
Through  the  initial  influence  of  this  institution,  the  Hamburg 
type  of  school  and  of  industrial  art  became  the  model  for  North 


375]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  25 

Germany,  just  as  that  of  Munich  in  Bavaria,  Stuttgart  in 
Wuerttemberg,  and  Karlsruhe  in  Baden  became  the  types  for 
South  Germany,  whereas  Middle  Germany  took  advantage  of 
both  influences,  and  in  some  respects  worked  out  its  own  in- 
dividuality, as  in  Saxony,  for  example.  The  Hamburg  school 
was  unique  in  the  fact  that  it  commenced  with  evening  instruc- 
tion, instead  of  the  Sunday  courses  alone  which  characterized 
the  majority  of  the  elementary  industrial  schools.  In  Bohemia, 
it  was  the  common  school  with  manual  instruction  brought  in 
to  an  unusual  extent — the  "Industry  School" — that  promised 
to  be  of  the  greatest  general  assistance  in  the  development  of 
vocational  teaching.  Introduced  by  Pastor  Kinderman,  there  were 
soon  one  hundred  of  these  schools  in  (1787)  and  232  by  1790. 

In  France,  where  drawing  and  other  elementary  industrial 
schools  had  long  been  in  existence  through  private  initia- 
tive, the  state  committed  itself  to  the  policy  of  actively  aid- 
ing industrial  education  at  this  period,  but  began  at  the  top, 
or  with  the  higher  technical  schools,  just  as  it  commenced  with 
the  universities  in  establishing  a  general  system  of  education 
after  the  Revolution.  At  Berlin,  the  Union  for  the  Erection  of 
Sunday  Improvement  Schools  for  Apprentices  founded  the  first 
improvement  school  of  that  city,  in  1797.  Two  years  before  this, 
a  spinning  institute  at  Birkach  near  Hohenheim  in  Wuerttem- 
berg, established  by  the  local  pastor,  marked  the  initial  point 
for  the  " industry  schools"  (Industrieschulen)  that  have  since 
become  consolidated  with  the  common  schools  of  that  kingdom. 
Munich,  in  Bavaria,  had  a  drawing  school  under  royal  protection 
in  1792,  and  in  1793  an  industrial  school  with  holiday  instruc- 
tion. An  industrial  school  for  girls  was  organized  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1792.  Instruction  in  sewing,  knitting,  spinning,  and 
housework  was  given.  Similar  schools  were  soon  established 
in  a  number  of  Bavarian  localities,  and  in  1804  these  "work- 
schools"  were  combined  with  the  common  schools  by  general 
regulation,  after  the  manner  of  the  present  "industry  schools"1 
of  Wuerttemberg. 

Isolated  cases  of  this  type  of  instruction  are  found  earlier 
— in  many  communes  of  France  in  the  sixteenth  century, 

1  The  so-called  "industry  schools"  of  recent  times  in  Bavaria  (which 
have  lately  been  abolished)  were  different.  The  four  schools  of  this  type 
at  Munich,  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  and  Kaiserslautern  dated  from  1868 


26  Teachers  College  Record  [376 

while  in  Germany  an  institution  of  the  kind  was  carried  on 
at  Hamburg  in  1604  in  connection  with  an  orphan  asylum. 
In  Baden,  which  had  an  industry  school  in  a  "poor  and 
orphan  home"  in  1718,  this  was  followed  by  other  industry, 
or  "economy"  schools,  established  at  different  intervals  of 
time.  In  1803,  a  Baden  edict  declared  that  girls  should  be 
taught  spinning,  sewing,  and  knitting,  in  industry  schools,  and 
that  attendance  on  such  schools  should  be  compulsory  unless 
suitable  instruction  of  the  kind  were  provided  at  their  homes. 
A  yearly  test  was  to  determine  what  progress  had  been  made. 
But  in  consequence  of  the  political  and  industrial  uncertainty 
of  the  times,  neither  did  the  industry  schools  of  Baden  and 
Bavaria  meet  with  continued  success,  nor  did  the  plans  of  those 
countries  for  industrial  and  technical  schools  of  higher  grade 
come  into  prompt  fulfilment.  The  spinning  schools  of  Austria 
received  a  setback  for  the  same  reasons.  With  the  re-established 
stability  of  governments  after  the  Napoleonic  era,  the  states 
turned  their  attention  first  to  general  education,  and  vocational 
instruction,  except  that  of  the  higher  grade,  was  left  to  private 
initiative  for  the  most  part,  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Baden  and  Wuerttemberg  were  to  be  the  chief  ex- 
ceptions to  this  general  rule.  In  the  case  of  the  polytechnic 
schools,  or  higher  industrial  institutions,  the  chief  dates  for  the 
state  foundations  are  as  follows:  Paris,  the  first,  1795;  Prague, 
1806;  Vienna,  1815;  Berlin,  1821;  Karlsruhe,  1825;  Munich, 
1827;  Dresden,  1828;  Stuttgart,  1829;  Hanover,  1831.  Several 
of  these — Stuttgart  and  Hanover,  for  instance — started  as 
trades  schools,  but  were  later  raised  to  the  standard  of  fully 
equipped  polytechnics. 

The  first  movement  toward  the  general  introduction  of 
Sunday  industrial  instruction  in  Wuerttemberg  was  the  prelim- 
inary inquiry  set  on  foot  in  1818  by  the  Educational  Ministry, 
The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Useful  Arts  at  Frankfort. 
a-M.  had  already  founded  an  industrial  Sunday  school.  The 
problem  for  Wuerttemberg  was  to  introduce  such  instruction 
into  the  regular  Sunday  schools.  In  1825,  the  Royal  School 
Board,  in  charge  of  the  higher  classical  and  "realistic"  schools, 

and  although  originally  intended  to  prepare  graduates  directly  for  in- 
dustrial occupations,  they  became  chiefly  preparatory  schools  for  the 
higher  technical  institutions. 


377]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  27 

was  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  propagating  Sunday  industrial 
schools  (in  lieu  of  some  of  the  regular  Sunday  schools),  and  of 
determining  their  programs  and  administration.  The  courses 
of  study  of  the  following  year  placed  emphasis  on  the  teaching 
of  drawing — free  hand,  geometrical,  and  architectural;  indus- 
trial arithmetic,  industrial  geography,  practical  geometry,  and 
mechanics,  elementary  technology,  bookkeeping  and  estimating. 
The  number  of  the  schools  increased  rapidly  because  of  the 
recognized  need  which  they  attempted  to  fill.  There  were 
thirty  Sunday  industrial  improvement  schools  in  Wuerttemberg 
in  1827,  and  thirty-seven  the  following  year.  But  the  schools 
could  not  give  entire  satisfaction  because  of  the  difficulty  in 
obtaining  fully  prepared  instructors,  and  because  the  same 
books  and  other  materials  that  had  been  employed  for  the 
common  and  Real-  schools  were  used  for  the  specialized  in- 
struction. Improved  from  year  to  year,  the  schools  were 
established  in  sixty-nine  Wuerttemberg  towns  by  1846,  and 
enrolled  a  total  of  4500  pupils.  The  meagre  character  of  the 
instruction  given  may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  forty-six 
of  the  schools  only  occupied  two  hours  a  week  each,  while  in 
thirty-eight  there  was  only  a  single  teacher.  Despite  all  efforts 
of  the  Royal  School  Board,  little  ground  was  gained  until  after 
the  organization  of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Com- 
merce— under  the  Interior  Ministry — in  1848,  and  its  subsequent 
activity  in  the  development  of  industrial  schools. 

Before  continuing  to  outline  the  growth  of  industrial  im- 
provement and  special  trades  schools  in  Wuerttemberg,  four 
or  five  movements  that  were  especially  active  during  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  should  be  mentioned.  One  of 
these  is  concerned  with  the  growth  in  Germany  and  Austria  of 
the  Real-  schools  with  their  emphasis  on  science,  mathematics, 
and  modern  languages  in  lieu  of  the  classics  of  the  Gymnasien. 
For  the  middle  classes  they  furnished  the  nearest  approach  to 
the  vocational-school  type,  and  were  destined  to  be  the  chief 
recruiting  ground  in  later  years  for  the  higher  technical  schools 
of  university  rank.  Their  share  in  the  preparation  of  com- 
mercial leaders  has  always  been  considerable. 

A  second  important  movement  was  the  gradual  freeing  of 
industry  from  the  destructive  effects  of  a  system  of  innumerable 
taxes  and  customs  duties.  At  the  commencement  of  the  nine- 


28  Teachers  College  Record  [378 

teenth  century  there  were  in  the  ancient  province  of  Prussia 
alone  "  sixty-seven  different  tariffs  for  almost  three  thousand 
kinds  of  merchandise,  and  these  were  to  be  reckoned  in  any 
one  of  seventy-one  officially  established  coinages."  Not  only 
were  the  German  states  separated  from  each  other  by  tariff 
walls,  but  the  towns  within  each  land  had  each  its  own  city- 
customs  duties, — as  Paris  now  in  the  case  of  provisions.  Signi- 
ficant of  the  conditions  of  the  times  was  the  proud  proverb  of 
South  Wuerttemberg—  (Ulmer  Geld  geht  durch  alle  Welt,  )"The 
money  of  Ulm  will  pass  anywhere" — a  fact  not  true  of  a 
great  many  German  towns  whose  exact  financial  status  could 
not  be  ascertained.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  guilds  also  possessed  many  exclusive  privileges  which  tended 
toward  the  restriction  of  trade.  Prussia  was  the  first  to  break 
away  from  the  toils  which  retarded  industrial  enterprise,  and 
its  customs  law  of  1819  brought  free  and  unrestricted  trade  to 
the  interior  localities.  The  clever  political  influence  of  Prussia 
succeeded  in  extending  the  benefits  of  such  legislation  to  other 
German  states,  and  led  to  the  Universal  Customs  Union  of 
1834,  a  union  that  later  included  not  only  all  the  German 
states,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  their  communes,  but  also 
the  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxembourg  and  several  communes  in 
Austria.  The  advantages  that  accrued  from  the  removal  of 
inter-city  and  inter-state  restrictions  caused  commerce  to  go 
forward  by  leaps  and  bounds,  with  the  resultant  benefit  to 
industry. 

Closely  interrelated  with  the  movements  already  cited  was 
the  complete  abolition  of  the  guilds,  as  in  France  (1791),  or 
their  restriction,  as  in  Austria  by  imperial  decrees,  and  in 
Prussia  through  the  celebrated  edict  of  1810;  the  organization 
at  a  later  date  of  industrial  unions,  and  the  share  these  associa- 
tions took  in  the  founding  of  special  trades  and  industrial 
schools,  and  in  inspiring  state  initiative  in  this  direction.  A 
further  stimulus  to  the  industrial  institutions  of  Germany  came 
from  the  influence  of  France,  exercised  not  only  directly,  but 
also  through  its  effect  on  English,  Belgian,  and  Austrian  in- 
dustry. It  was  in  France  that  the  early  introduction  of 
geometry — a  subject  that  was  to  have  a  far-reaching  influence 
in  industrial  education — met  with  especial  favor.  It  was  here 
also  that  in  both  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  not 


379]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  29 

only  were  the  common  schools  developed  to  a  degree  not  found 
in  other  countries,  but  vocational  instruction  had  been  in- 
troduced in  many  communes  through  private  initiative.  Here, 
again,  the  development  of  art  as  applied  to  industry  early 
reached  a  high  state  of  perfection.  France  was  the  first  to 
found  a  polytechnic  school,  and,  although  the  central  govern- 
ment paid  little  attention  to  the  establishing  of  elementary 
industrial  schools  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, it  had  special  facilities  for  the  training  of  technical  teachers 
before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Industrial  taste  and 
industrial  intelligence  were  widely  disseminated  by  the  experts 
sent  into  the  provinces. 

Paris  was  in  the  eighteenth  century ,  as  it  is  now,  the  heart  of 
a  centralized  nation  whose  industrial  life  current  was  constantly 
revivified  by  comiminication  and  contact  with  the  capital. 
However,  it  was  not  until  the  London  Exposition  of  1851  that 
the  eyes  of  the  industrial  world,  and  especially  of  the  English, 
were  fully  awakened  to  the  superior  excellence  of  the  French 
products  of  industrial  art  and  to  the  causes  of  their  supremacy 
in  the  markets  of  the  world.  England  became  alive  to  the  lack  of 
facilities  for  industrial  education.  The  newly  organized  Science 
and  Art  Department  took  up  the  problem,  and  within  a  few 
years  a  vast  system  of  industrial  drawing  schools  was  organized, 
with  the  Industrial  Art  School  of  South  Kensington  Museum  as 
the  center  and  chief  source  of  instructors.  By  1873,  England 
and  Scotland  had  173  industrial  schools  of  art,  with  22,000 
pupils,  and  460  evening  art  classes.  Also,  in  over  2000  elemen- 
tary schools  drawing  was  a  compulsory  subject.  There  were 
besides,  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  nearly  1400  indus- 
trial schools  and  several  hundred  chemical  laboratories,  with  a 
total  of  nearly  50,000  students  who  were  preparing  themselves 
for  the  building,  mechanical,  or  chemical  industries.  Under  the 
protection  of  the  Prince  Consort,  elementary  industrial  educa- 
tion was  organized  with  more  system  than  any  other  type  of 
instruction  in  England.  The  consequent  benefit  to  English 
trade  is  a  matter  of  history.  Yet  in  recent  years  Germany  has 
done  much  more  than  England  in  the  direction  of  elementary 
industrial  instruction.  The  result  is  already  shown  in  the 
relative  commercial  position  of  the  two  nations. 

Somewhat   earlier   than    England,    Wuerttemberg   was   the 


30  Teachers  College  Record  [380 

other  European  state  to  attack  seriously  the  problem  of  in 
dustrial  training.  It  was  spurred  to  action  not  only  by  local 
needs  but  by  the  example  of  France  and  Belgium.  In  1848, 
the  agitation  in  favor  of  industrial  betterment  led  to  the  forma- 
tion in  Wuerttemberg  of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and 
Commerce,  under  the  Interior  Ministry,  which  had  charge  of 
the  handicrafts  schools,  while  the  Sunday  industrial  institutions 
still  remained  under  the  charge  of  the  Royal  Board.  What 
followed  has  been  duplicated  in  other  European  countries. 
Business  interests  pressed  for  a  more  practical  administration 
of  the  improvement  schools.  The  final  result  was  a  permanent 
Royal  Commission  (appointed  in  1853  to  represent  both  the 
Educational  and  Interior  Ministries),  under  the  presidency  of 
the  head  of  the  Central  Bureau.  This  commission,  under  a 
recent  law,  is  superseded  by  a  Higher  Industrial  School  Council 
similarly  organized. 

Since  the  Sunday  industrial  schools  did  not  allow  sufficient 
time  for  thorough  industrial  training,  the  Royal  Commission 
soon  took  the  first  step  in  advance  by  providing  also  evening 
industrial  schools  for  the  more  capable  candidates.  Two 
courses  were  given.  The  apprenticeship  course  was  to  comprise 
the  introduction  to  industrial  composition  and  correspondence, 
industrial  arithmetic,  and  whatever  geometrical  principles  are  of 
greatest  importance  in  industry,  and  finally  drawing,  both 
mechanical  and  decorative;  in  the  higher  course,  the  mathe- 
matical subjects  and  drawing  (with  the  addition  of  modelling) 
were  to  be  continued,  and,  as  new  material,  physics  and  mechan- 
ics, industrial  chemistry,  and  lastly  bookkeeping,  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  industrial  economy,  were  to  be  taught.  Attendance 
upon  industrial  schools  was  to  be  optional,  although  those  who 
came  under  the  provisions  of  the  Sunday  school  compulsory  law 
were  still  obliged  to  attend  the  Sunday  general  improvement 
school  or  the  Sunday  industrial  improvement  school  in  the  event 
that  they  did  not  elect  to  follow  the  courses  of  the  evening 
industrial  establishments.  These  provisions  continued  in  force 
until  the  Imperial  Industrial  Ordinance  came  into  effect  with 
the  entrance  of  Wuerttemberg  into  the  confederation  of  Ger- 
man states  in  1871.  Then  a  small  but  ever  increasing  percentage 
of  the  local  cities  took  advantage  of  the  privilege  therein  con- 


381]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  31 

ferred  upon  them  of  making  attendance  upon  industrial  im- 
provement schools  compulsory. 

The  industrial  improvement  schools  were  made  local  (Ge- 
meinde)  institutions  from  the  outset.  Their  immediate  inspection 
and  direction  was  left  to  the  communal  school  board,  which  was 
required  to  constitute  a  special  commission  for  industrial  im- 
provement instruction  through  the  appointment  to  the  com- 
mittee of  capable  industrialists,  and  of  the  principal  of  the 
school.  The  state  agreed  to  furnish  one  half  of  the  expense 
remaining  after  the  locality  had  provided  the  building  and 
equipment  and  the  amount  of  tuition  collected  had  been  applied 
on  the  remaining  liabilities.  The  industrial  guilds  and  unions 
helped,  by  advancing  the  tuition  of  poor  pupils  wherever  it 
seemed  advisable.  The  president  of  the  Central  Bureau  and 
the  members  of  the  Royal  Commission  proceeded  to  visit  the 
communal  councils  and  to  urge  in  every  way  within  their  power 
the  establishment  of  the  schools.  The  great  difficulty,  as  every- 
where, at  the  first,  was  to  secure  instructors  who  could  give  the 
vocational  work.  For  the  very  important  subject  of  industrial 
drawing,  some  had  already  been  trained  in  the  special  school 
founded  by  the  commission.  In  1854  there  were  twenty-five 
industrial  improvement  schools,  and  by  1856  forty-five,  with 
both  Sunday  and  evening  instruction.  By  1861-62  the  schools 
had  been  established  in  84  localities,  with  7273  pupils;  and  in 
1871-72  in  155  places,  with  9763  in  attendance.  Several 
important  results  of  the  first  experiment  were  soon  evident. 
First,  the  increased  efficiency  of  those  workers  who  attended 
the  fully  equipped  schools  was  so  marked  as  to  win  for  all  time 
the  influence  of  industrial  employers  and  unions  in  favor  of  the 
improvement  schools.  Second,  it  was  found  impracticable  and 
unnecessary  to  separate  the  school  programs  into  apprenticeship 
and  journeymen  courses,  except  in  the  large  cities.  Third,  it 
was  found  that  the  payment  of  tuition,  however  small,  in  the 
case  of  adolescents  and  adults,  increases  the  self-respect  and 
self-dependence  of  the  pupils  and  adds  to  the  value  put  upon 
the  instruction.  Fourth,  the  compulsory-attendance  require- 
ment is  not  satisfactory  if  the  locality  is  not  prepared  to  equip 
the  school  with  a  capable  teaching  personnel  and  with  the  material 
necessary  to  give  the  best  results.  Soon  after  the  organization 
movement  was  fairly  started,  several  communes  hastened  to 


32  Teachers  College  Record  [382 

enact  a  compulsory  law  on  the  principle  that  what  is  good  for 
some  is  good  for  all.  Since  they  were  unable  to  obtain  in- 
structors sufficiently  qualified  for  the  new  work,  or  to  provide 
suitable  quarters  and  the  other  desiderata,  the  outcome  of  this 
zeal  was  disastrous  and  in  some  cases  discredited  the  schools  for 
a  time. 

Wuerttemberg  now  leads  all  German  states  in  the  extent  of 
the  development  of  its  industrial  improvement  schools.  Other 
states  are  not  far  behind  in  this  respect,  the  growth  in  the  past 
five  years  being  especially  marked.  Bavaria  followed  Wuerttem- 
berg, in  1864,  with  a  general  ordinance  for  the  organization  of 
industrial  improvement  schools.  Saxony  did  likewise  in  1873, 
although  in  that  kingdom  the  system  of  special  technical  schools 
for  a  variety  of  industries  is  the  most  noteworthy  feature  of  a 
well-planned  scheme  of  industrial  training.  Baden,  which  in 
1834  commenced  to  pay  much  attention  to  the  organization  of 
higher  industrial  schools,  and  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  passed  state 
laws  in  behalf  of  industrial  improvement  schools  in  1874.  Saxe- 
Meiningen-Hildburghausen  did  similarly  in  1875.  It  was  well 
along  in  the  eighties  before  the  movement  became  general. 
Saxony,  Baden,  Wuerttemberg,  and  Hesse  early  passed  com- 
pulsory laws  for  attendance  at  general  improvement  schools. 
In  Prussia,  the  increasing  strength  of  the  Polish  constitutency 
of  West  Prussia  and  Posen  led  to  the  law  of  1886,  in  which  the 
Minister  of  Commerce  and  Industry  was  empowered  to  make 
attendance  at  the  improvement  schools  (semi-industrial)  com- 
pulsory for  all  workers  under  eighteen.  In  1 1 5  localities  such  in- 
stitutions were  established,  but  the  law  failed  through  lack  of  a 
penalty  or  because  the  industrial  program  could  not  thrive  in 
agricultural  districts,  without  modification.  When  in  1891  the 
Prussian  state  assumed  a  large  part  of  the  financial  responsibility 
for  improvement  schools,  they  were  soon  introduced  in  all 
quarters  of  the  kingdom.  However,  a  great  many  of  the  so-called 
industrial  schools  of  Prussia,  and  the  industrial  improvement 
schools  of  Bavaria  up  to  the  year  1900,  were  merely  general 
improvement  institutions  with  industrial  drawing  added  to  the 
regular  schedules.  The  whole  tone,  purpose,  and  content  of  the 
northern  industrial  improvement  schools,  especially  in  Prussia 
and  Saxony,  has  been  strengthened  through  the  efforts  of  the 
German  Union  for  Improvement  Schools,  organized  in  1892. 


383]  The  Rise  of  Vocational  Schools  33 

Not  alone  in  regard  to  the  improvement  schools,  but  in  many 
other  directions,  the  Educational  Ministry  and  the  Royal  Com- 
mission of  Wuerttemberg  busied  themselves  for  the  attainment 
of  industrial  efficiency.  Toward  and  after  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  these  activities  were  most  pronounced. 
The  schools  were  to  reach  everybody  dependent  on  industrial  or 
commercial  pursuits — the  child  in  the  "industry  schools,"  the 
apprentice  or  journeyman  in  the  improvement  schools  or  in 
the  special  drawing  schools  or  courses,  the  prospective  foreman 
or  superintendent  in  special  technical  schools  (mechanical, 
textile,  or  building  trades) ,  the  engineer  in  the  technical  univer- 
sity. Training  for  girls  and  women  was  provided  in  the  "in- 
dustry schools,"  in  "women's  work"  schools,  and  in  the  special 
and  improvement  schools. 

In  order  to  furnish  facilities  for  the  education  of  foremen, 
the  Stuttgart  Trades  School  had  been  founded  (in  1829).  By 
1840  the  school  had  attained  such  scope  and  grade  of  work  that 
it  was  called  the  Polytechnic.  In  1845  the  courses  in  secondary 
technical  instruction  were  classified  separately  and  the  present 
Royal  Building  Trades  School  was  founded.  In  1862  the  Poly- 
technic was  made  a  Technische  Hochschule,  or  Technical  College 
of  university  rank. 

Of  the  special  technical  schools  (Fachschuleri)  Reutlingen 
had  the  first  one — the  now  famous  Technicum,  or  Technical 
Institute  for  the  Textile  Industries — founded  in  1855  by  the 
Weaving-school  Union  and  later  subsidized  by  the  state.  In 
Reutlingen,  also,  the  movement  in  favor  of  "women's  work" 
schools  began,  in  the  sixties.  The  technical  weaving  schools  at 
Heidenheim  (1860),  Sindelfingen  (1869),  and  Laichingen  (1873) 
were  monuments  of  the  earlier  years  of  the  industrial  move- 
ment. The  other  special  technical  schools  are  of  comparatively 
recent  founding,  and  in  their  plan  give  expression  to  the  results  of 
long  experience.  The  older  schools  have  been  many  times 
remodelled  in  keeping  with  current  requirements. 

It  is  about  thirty  years  since  the  "industry  schools" — those 
in  which  sewing,  spinning,  knitting,  and  similar  work  is  taught — 
were  united  with  the  common  or  "people's"  schools.  The 
latest  separate  statistics  for  the  "industry  schools"  date  from 
1895-96,  when  in  1929  schools  a  total  of  120,377  pupils  received 
such  instruction.  Only  283  of  these  were  boys,  the  number  of 


34  Teachers  College  Record  [384 

male  pupils  allowed  to  take  the  work — compulsory  for  girls — 
having  diminished  steadily  from  the  outset.  The  total  attend- 
ance in  the  "people's"  schools  during  the  same  year  was 
approximately  142,000  boys  and  156,000  girls. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL  IMPROVEMENT 

SCHOOLS 

The  new  industrial  improvement  school  law  of  Wuerttem- 
berg  deserves  an  extended  analysis  here.  It  embodies  not  only 
the  experience  of  the  kingdom  in  which  the  elementary  in- 
dustrial school  has  been  most  thoroughly  developed,  Wuerttem- 
berg  itself,  but  that  of  the  other  German  states  as  well,  since  a 
commission  which  was  sent  out  to  study  the  conditions  in  the 
neighboring  states  gave  the  Central  Bureau  and  the  Educational 
Ministry  the  benefit  of  personal  investigations.  Moreover,  rep- 
resentatives of  the  industrial  boards  of  trade  and  of  the  unions 
participated  in  the  preliminary  studies.  Finally  every  detail 
was  examined  thoroughly  in  the  offices  of  the  Central  Bureau 
and  of  the  Ministry,  as  well  as  in  the  ultimate  committee  of  the 
Parliament  and  on  the  floors  of  the  houses  themselves.  The  law 
naturally  represents  an  advanced  position  with  regard  to  in- 
dustrial training,  a  position  so  advanced  that  even  in  America, 
where  everything  is  possible,  we  may  not  hope  to  put  several  of 
its  fundamental  principles  into  general  practice  here  for  many 
years.  I  refer  especially  to  the  requirements  for  compulsory  at- 
tendance and  day  instruction.  And  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
these  stipulations,  together  with  the  determination  of  a  satisfactory 
minimum  of  hours  of  instruction,  were  considered  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  Wuerttemberg  bill.  The  requirement  for  day  in- 
struction, as  opposed  to  evening,  was  counted  the  most  important 
of  all.  The  other  main  issues  of  the  Bill  as  heartily  indorsed  by 
Parliament  were  the  reorganization  of  the  industrial  improve- 
ment schools  as  strictly  vocational  institutions,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  especially  trained  for  the  work  of  these  schools 
It  was  because  of  the  lack  of  teachers  sufficiently  equipped  to 
carry  out  the  new  plans — a  lack  that  the  state  is  meanwhile 
attempting  to  fill  by  granting  scholarships  for  instruction  to  a 


385]      Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools      35 

chosen  corps — that  the  most  vital  requirements  of  the  act  do  not 
go  into  effect  until  April  i,  1909,  and  even  then  the  compulsory 
law  is  to  become  effective  only  a  year  at  a  time,  beginning  with 
the  youngest  who  fall  within  the  stipulated  ages.  Those  parts 
of  the  act  which  are  operative  after  January  i,  1907,  relate  to 
the  appointment  of  teachers  and  to  the  organization  of  the 
governing  boards. 

The  chief  provisions  of  the  law,  to  be  discussed  more  fully 
farther  on,  are  as  follows:  Every  locality,  or  commune,  in  which 
for  three  successive  years  an  average  of  at  least  forty  male 
workmen  under  eighteen  years  of  age  are  engaged  in  commercial 
or  industrial  pursuits,  is  obliged  to  provide  an  industrial  improve- 
ment school — to  be  called  an  "industrial  school"  or  a  "com- 
mercial school"  under  the  new  law — for  their  reception  and 
instruction,  and  to  maintain  the  same  as  long  as  the  number  of 
workmen  of  the  stated  age  does  not  fall  below  an  average  of 
thirty  for  three  successive  years.  The  ordinary  school  under 
the  law  will  be  an  "industrial  school,"  but  if  the  needs  of  the 
community  are  such  as  to  require  a  "commercial  school"  also, 
it  is  to  be  erected  in  addition.  Decision  concerning  the  extra 
school  lies  with  the  local  school  board,  the  community  council, 
and  finally  the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council.  In  the  case  of 
very  poor  communes,  the  building  of  the  industrial  school  may 
be  postponed  for  as  long  as  ten  years  by  action  of  the  Ministry 
but  they  must  support  a  general  improvement  school  at  ali 
events. 

Every  young  man  in  a  commune,  who  is  engaged  in  an  industrial 
or  commercial  pursuit,  and  is  of  the  required  age,  under  eighteen 
—they  are  usually  through  the  common  schools  at  fourteen — 
is  obliged  to  attend  the  school  for  three  years.  If  the  eighteenth 
year  is  finished  in  the  course  of  a  school  term  the  obligation 
extends  until  the  end  of  the  semester.  Communes  which  provide 
for  a  four-years'  course  of  study  may  make  the  attendance  com- 
pulsory for  the  fourth  year  also,  in  the  case  of  all  or  of  certain 
industries.  Those  workers  whose  employment  ceases  at  given 
periods  of  the  year,  or  is  interrupted  for  other  reasons,  may  be 
authorized  to  attend  school  in  the  locality  where  formerly 
employed,  or  if  this  is  not  their  home  commune  they  may  attend 
at  the  latter  place.  Those  may  be  freed  from  the  compulsory 
attendance  requirement  who  attend  a  guild  school  or  other 


36  Teachers  College  Record  [386 

idnustrial  institution  whose  instruction  is  considered  by  the 
Higher  Industrial  School  Council  to  be  the  equivalent  of 
that  outlined  by  law.  Likewise,  those  who  show  exceptional 
training  may  be  excused.  Workers  in  certain  branches  of 
unskilled  industries,  such  as  the  bakers,  the  barbers,  market  men, 
may  be  excused  from  the  instruction  in  drawing,  or  by  vote  of 
the  common  council,  with  the  approval  of  the  Ministry,  may  be 
turned  over  to  the  general  improvement  schools.  Those  not  of 
the  compulsory  age  may  be  allowed  the  privileges  of  the  schools, 
as  has  heretofore  been  the  case.  The  local  school  board  passes 
on  such  matters,  and  the  persons  admitted  are  under  the  usual 
school  regulations. 

The  common  councils  may  authorize  the  erection  of  indus- 
trial schools  for  girls,  or  the  creation  of  departments  for  girls  in 
the  regular  industrial  schools.  In  accordance  with  the  imperial 
law  of  1900,  the  communes  are  allowed  to  make  these  schools 
compulsory  for  employed  girls  under  eighteen  years  of  age- 
The  authorization  of  the  common  councils  for  the  erection 
of  special  industrial  schools  for  girls,  or  for  the  creation  of 
a  special  industrial  department  for  girls,  must  be  approved  by 
the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council — the  new  name  for  the 
body  formerly  known  as  the  Royal  Commission  for  Industrial 
Schools.  Through  similar  procedure,  those  communes  which 
do  not  come  under  the  requirements  of  the  law  because  they 
do  not  have  forty  workers  of  the  stipulated  age  may  never- 
theless be  authorized  to  build  industrial  schools.  Communes 
may  unite  to  establish  an  industrial  school  if  the  total  number 
of  workers  within  the  compulsory  law  is  at  least  sixty,  on  the 
average,  for  three  consecutive  years. 

With  the  approval  of  the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council 
the  communes  may  be  authorized  to  collect  tuition  from  the 
pupils.  The  stipulation  may  be  made  that  the  employers 
must  advance  the  amount  of  the  tuition.  The  state  pays 
half  of  the  amount  required  for  maintenance  after  the  tui- 
tion and  gifts  are  applied  toward  it.  The  minimum  number 
of  hours  of  instruction,  that  is  the  hours  each  obligated 
student  must  attend,  for  each  of  the  three  years,  is  280,  to  be 
further  reduced  only  by  action  of  the  Higher  Industrial  School 
Council.  The  instruction  is  to  be  given  throughout  the  year 
if  possible,  although  in  the  case  of  industries-  which  have  a 


387]     Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools      37 

regular  shutdown  season,  the  instruction  may  be  lumped  at 
this  time,  with  due  regard  to  the  minimum  requirement.  The 
compulsory  instruction  is  to  be  given  in  the  daytime,  not  later 
than  7  P.M.,  although  the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council  may 
in  individual  cases  permit  it  to  be  given  as  late  as  8  P.M.,  for  a 
period  of  three  years,  and  for  a  period  of  seven  years  may  allow 
the  instruction  in  drawing  to  be  given  on  Sunday  forenoon  dur- 
ing the  two  hours  preceding  or  following  the  chief  divine  services. 

The  general  course  of  study  to  be  followed  will  be  issued  at 
a  future  date,  since  two  years  must  elapse  before  it  is  strictly 
needed.  Employers  are  obligated  to  inform  the  industrial  school 
principal  as  to  each  and  every  worker  of  the  compulsory  age  who 
enters  or  leaves  their  employment,  within  four  days  after  such 
time.  They  are  further  required  to  release  these  workers  for 
attendance  at  school  at  the  necessary  periods,  as  well  as  to  see 
to  it  that  such  attendance  is  punctual  and  regular.  Fulfilment 
of  the  latter  requirement  is  also  made  the  duty  of  parents  and 
guardians.  The  penalty  to  be  inflicted  upon  employer,  parent, 
or  guardian  responsible  for  violations  of  the  attendance  law 
is  to  be  up  to  $4.00  for  each  offence,  or  imprisonment  for  as  much 
as  three  days.  The  pupils  responsible  for  such  derelictions  are 
punished  under  the  regulations  applicable  to  the  general  im- 
provement schools,  that  is,  a  fine  of  at  least  $.24  or  "school 
arrest" — imprisonment  in  the  school  jail.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
general  improvement  schools,  students  of  the  industrial  schools 
who  are  under  seventeen  years  of  age  are  forbidden  to  enter 
drinking  places  unless  accompanied  by  an  older  responsible  per- 
son, or  else  when  on  a  journey,  or  at  the  parent's  place  of  business. 
Penalties  for  the  transgression  of  this  law  are  the  same  as  for 
non-attendance  at  school. 

The  instruction  in  the  industrial  school  is  preferably  given 
by  teachers  employed  for  the  school  exclusively,  but  also  by 
those  who  teach  in  other  schools  or  who  engage  in  some  other 
occupation  as  a  chief  employment.  Those  employed  to 
teach  principally  in  the  industrial  schools  must  be  appointed 
by  the  state.  In  case  the  state  appoints  for  life,  the  com- 
mune is  allowed  to  propose  names.  Appointment  to  part 
time  positions  is  made  by  the  commune,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council.  Those  men  employed  as 
full  time  teachers  have  all  the  rights  of  state  employees  as  to 


38  Teachers  College  Record  [388 

pension  and  other  emoluments.  Women  employed  for  life  have 
the  same  privileges  as  those  instructing  in  the  higher  schools  for 
girls,  except  that  they  must  be  unmarried  at  the  time  of  ap- 
pointment and  are  under  the  authority  of  the  industrial  school 
principal,  of  the  industrial  school  board  and  of  the  higher 
authority. 

Each  industrial  or  commercial  school  is  under  the  direct  local 
supervision  respectively  of  an  "industrial  school  board"  or  a 
"commercial  school  board."  The  mayor  and  the  principal  of 
the  school  concerned  are  ex-officio  members  of  this  body.  A 
special  advisory  committee  of  eighteen  members — instructors  or 
school  principals  and  representatives  of  industries — is  appointed 
by  the  Ministry  for  a  term  of  four  years,  to  assist  in  preparing 
the  course  of  study  for  the  industrial  and  commercial  schools 
and  for  the  purpose  of  advising  in  other  matters  of  importance 
This  committee  as  well  as  the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council 
is  presided  over  by  the  President  of  the  Central  Bureau. 

The  Act  above  outlined  expressed  the  results  of  years  of  expe- 
rience, and  the  careful  thought  of  industrial  employers,  workers, 
and  educationalists.  Naturally  enough  the  first  statement  of 
the  need  for  more  thorough  industrial  training  originated  outside 
of  the  ranks  of  schoolmen.  Wuerttemberg,  lacking  coal  and 
water-power  and  the  other  special  facilities  that  tend  to  aid  indus- 
trial expansion,  was  forced  to  rely  upon  a  better  quality  of  manu- 
facture instead  of  looking  to  quantity  alone.  It  was  necessary 
to  lead  in  this  respect  to  avoid  industrial  ruin.  Earlier  expe- 
rience had  taught  what  the  industrial  schools  might  be  expected 
to  accomplish  in  the  way  of  promoting  efficiency.  The  experi- 
ment of  day-school  classes,  for  the  same  length  of  time,  produced 
results  immeasurably  greater  than  did  the  evening  classes  held 
in  the  same  cities.  The  day  vocational  school  proved  to  be  as 
far  ahead  of  the  evening  school  as  the  latter  was  in  advance  of 
the  limited  Sunday  instruction.  It  was  argued  that  the  business 
of  learning  is  a  delicate  one,  requiring  for  its  complete  success 
an  active,  unwearied  brain.  The  pupils  were  too  fatigued 
to  accomplish  the  best  results  in  the  evenings — that  they  put 
forth  supreme  efforts,  all  agreed.  The  evening  classes  are  as 
successful  as  could  be  expected,  in  Wuerttemberg,  as  in  the  other 
German  states,  in  France,  and  in  England.  But  it  was  agreed 
that  Wuerttemberg  must  take  an  advanced  position  in  respect 


389]     Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools       39 

to  vocational  training  if  it  would  keep  well  to  the  fore  in  the  in- 
dustrial contest. 

The  compulsory  attendance  requirement  was  not  planned 
wholly  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  number  of  students  in  the 
vocational  schools — it  was  pointed  out  that  only  four  or  five 
thousands  more  would  be  added  to  the  school  attendance  through 
this  provision, — it  was  rather  intended  to  make  the  day  schools 
possible  by  removing  the  restraints  that  might  be  imposed  by 
certain  employers,  parents,  and  guardians  who  might  otherwise 
not  be  willing  to  release  the  young  workers  each  week  at  a 
period  in  which  they  could  be  profitably  employed  in  the  busi- 
ness. Also  it  was  desirable  that  the  Higher  Industrial  School 
Council  should  be  able  to  say  to  a  commune:  "You  must  provide 
the  opportunity  for  industrial  training,  by  the  erection  and 
maintenance  of  a  vocational  school."  Wuerttemberg  already  has 
a  considerable  number  of  industrial  schools  made  compulsory 
by  vote  of  the  localities.  Several  of  them  owe  their  origin  to 
the  fact  that  the  communities  are  chiefly  industrial,  and  that 
the  state  appropriation  to  the  industrial  schools  is  more  than 
that  made  to  the  general  improvement  schools — hence  by  making 
attendance  compulsory  the  general  improvement  school  may  be 
done  away  with  altogether. 

By  I9o4-'o5,  there  were  22  compulsory  industrial  improve- 
ment schools  out  of  a  total  of  150,  and  two  compulsory  com- 
mercial improvement  schools,  in  a  total  of  four.  However > 
the  attendance  in  the  non-compulsory  schools  of  Wuerttem- 
berg has  been  very  fair.  They  have  been  more  common  in 
the  larger  places.  While  the  22  compulsory  industrial  schools 
of  1905  averaged  about  61  enrolled,  the  128  optional  schools 
averaged  134.  Similarly,  the  two  compulsory  commercial 
schools  averaged  112,  to  the  average  of  510  in  the  two  non- 
compulsory  commercial  improvement  schools.  A  large  per- 
centage of  the  communes  in  Baden  have  succeeded  in  passing 
the  compulsory  requirement  made  possible  under  the  Imperial 
law.1  In  1904,  Baden  had  47  highly  developed  industrial 

1  The  Imperial  ordinance  made  it  possible  for  a  commune  to  decide 
upon  compulsory  attendance  for  industrial  improvement  schools  without 
the  necessity  of  awaiting  the  action  of  the  state.  A  committee  of 
the  Imperial  Reichstag  in  1906  outlined  a  further  step  by  calling  for 
suggestions  from  the  various  governments  looking  toward  the  final  en 


40  Teachers  College  Record  [390 

schools,  102  lesser  industrial  improvement  schools,  and  n  com- 
mercial improvement  schools,  of  which  only  three  of  the  in- 
dustrial schools  had  not  been  made  compulsory.  Likewise  in 
Prussia,  in  1903,  out  of  1209  industrial  improvement  schools  with 
189,068  students,  1082  with  156,757  students  had  been  made 
compulsory,  and  of  273  commercial  improvement  schools  with 
29>765  pupils,  182  with  18,509  in  attendance  had  been  made 
compulsory.  Berlin,  notably,  has  introduced  compulsory  at- 
tendance for  young  workmen,  and  has  entered  upon  a  similar 
project  in  the  case  of  young  women  employed  in  the  industries- 
Bavaria,  in  1904,  had  local  compulsory  attendance  provision  for 
217  of  301  industrial  improvement  schools.  Munich,  with  its 
constant  quota  of  6000  apprentices,  has  for  several  years  en- 
forced a  compulsory  attendance  regulation  for  industrial  schools. 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  through  an  ordinance  which  went  into 
effect  on  April  13,  1905,  has  succeeded  in  making  the  industrial 
schools  compulsory  to  about  the  same  extent  as  Baden. 

The  recent  Wuerttemberg  law  goes  farther  than  the  others 
and  makes  attendance  compulsory  for  all  communes  having  at 
least  forty  workmen  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  While  the  new 
law  will  apply  to  several  communes  that  have  not  yet  established 
industrial  improvement  schools,  it  affects  only  101  of  the  136 
communes  which  had  such  schools  in  1903.  That  does  not 
mean  that  the  remaining  localities  may  not  continue  to  maintain 
industrial  improvement  schools — they  only  need  to  comply  with 
the  provisions  of  the  law  and  to- secure  the  approval  of  the  Higher 
Industrial  School  Council  in  order  to  receive  a  share  in  the  state 
funds  devoted  to  the  purpose.  The  compulsory  requirement 
takes  into  account  the  number  of  workers  employed  in  a  com- 
munity. This  seemed  more  practical  than  to  take  the  total 
population  of  a  locality  as  a  basis,  because  of  the  differences  in 
the  development  of  the  various  industries  and  because  of  the 
greater  convenience  in  obtaining  attendance  at  school  in  the 
same  locality  in  which  the  worker  is  employed. 

Local  conditions  are  to  determine  whether  young  men  work- 
ing in  certain  unskilled  industries  or  as  apprentices  to  butchers, 
bakers,  tanners,  dyers,  barbers,  and  hotel  men,  shall  be  held 
to  attendance  in  the  industrial,  or  in  the  general  improvement 

actment  of  an  Imperial  compulsory  law  that  will  not  be  optional — a  law 
similar  to  that  of  Wuerttemberg — to  be  applied  everywhere  in  Germany. 


391]     Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools     41 

schools.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the  apprentices  in  indus- 
tries requiring  greater  skill  will  be  given  first  attention  in  the 
industrial  improvement  schools.  Those  belonging  to  unskilled 
industries  will  at  least  be  excused  from  drawing,  in  many  in- 
stances, although  an  argument  against  such  a  move  has  been 
advanced  in  some  localities.  It  is  claimed,  for  instance,  that  the 
bakers'  apprentices  rarely  stay  in  the  business  until  the  age  of 
thirty,  because  the  wages  are  too  low  to  permit  them  to  marry, 
and  so  they  change  to  some  more  remunerative  trade  requiring 
greater  skill.  The  principles  of  industrial  drawing  are  considered 
most  practical  for  application  in  almost  any  skilled  industry. 
Hence  many  communes  will  require  industrial  drawing  to  be 
studied  by  all.  Those  communes  which  do  not  do  so  will  be 
influenced  chiefly  by  financial  reasons. 

The  day  attendance  and  compulsory  features  of  the  new  law 
received  some  opposition  from  small  industrial  employers  who 
feared  that  their  business  would  be  disadvantaged  through  the 
loss  of  the  time  of  their  employees.  The  opposition  of  these 
men  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  action  of  the 
Handwerkskammern,  or  unions  of  small  industrial  employers, 
which  voted  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  law. 

Commercial  schools  will  be  opened  side  by  side  with  the 
industrial  schools  in  the  larger  cities  only — perhaps  in  none  other 
than  those  already  equipped  with  similar  schools.  In  some 
smaller  places,  commercial  classes  may  be  organized  in  the 
industrial  schools.  The  German  states  have  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  make  commercial  education  a  matter  of  government 
concern.  Bavaria,  by  law  of  1873,  directed  that  private  com- 
mercial schools  should  only  be  erected  after  the  approval  of  the 
government  had  been  obtained.  Saxony  decreed  likewise  in 
1880,  and  Baden  has  a  similar  law. 

The  work  of  the  industrial  improvement  schools  in  Wuerttem- 
berg  has  hitherto  been  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  a  body  of  in- 
structors who,  though  very  excellent  in  their  special  lines  (and 
holders  perforce  of  state  certificates  in  proof  of  this  fact),  have 
been  principally  employed  in  other  schools  or  in  business 
vocations,1  and  have  carried  on  the  industrial  teaching  as  a  side 

*In  1905,  there  were  654  drawing  instructors  connected  with  Wuerttem- 
berg  industrial  improvement  and  "women's  work"  schools,  and  952 
teachers  of  other  subjects  engaged  in  these  and  the  commercial  improve- 


42  Teachers  College  Record  [392 

issue.  Under  the  new  system  the  standards,  ever  high,  have 
been  raised  considerably.  The  teaching  of  elementary  in- 
dustrial subjects  has  been  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  profession 
sufficient  unto  itself.  In  order  that  only  those  with  the  highest 
qualifications  may  be  permanently  placed,  it  has  been  considered 
inadvisable  to  establish  the  schools  on  the  new  basis  until  pro- 
vision for  an  even  better  trained  corps  of  teachers  has  been  made. 
Herein  lies  the  all-important  reason  for  setting  the  period  for  the 
principal  reconstruction  of  the  industrial  improvement  schools  at 
1909  to  1912.  School  boards  that  anticipate  the  new  regulations 
by  petitioning  to  have  their  institutions  put  on  the  new  basis  at 
once  are  frowned  upon.  Wuerttemberg,  a  country  which  has 
afforded  the  opportunity  for  elementary  vocational  teaching 
for  several  generations,  confesses  that  it  has  not  a  force  suffi- 
ciently trained  to  equip  the  schools  under  the  new  standards. 
The  excellent  vocational  instruction  of  the  present  is  branded 
as  wholly  inadequate.  What  is  to  be  done? 

The  state,  through  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and 
Commerce,  and  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Educational 
Ministry,  is  providing  for  the  further  training  of  a  chosen  corps 
of  teachers,  selected. by  the  Higher  School  Boards.  Thirty- 
eight  such  candidates  for  the  industrial  improvement  schools 
were  sent  to  the  Normal  Training  Division  for  Industrial  Teachers 
of  the  Grand  Ducal  Building  Trades  School  of  Karlsruhe, 
Baden,  in  1906,  and  twenty  or  more  other  individuals  will  be 
added  to  the  number  each  year  until  a  full  and  sufficient  quota 
has  been  obtained.  About  one  hundred  such  trained  instructors 
are  needed  for  the  first  year  of  the  operation  of  the  new  law. 
The  candidates  sent  to  Karlsruhe  are  from  the  best  of  the  men 
teachers  in  the  common  schools,  as  a  rule,  though  the  "realistic" 
schools  and  expert  practitioners  are  also  represented  in  the  lot. 
The  ages  are  twenty-six  to  thirty.  At  Karlsruhe  the  course  is 

ment  schools.  Only  a  few  of  the  teachers  of  drawing  (20  men  and  2 
women)  alone,  were  chiefly  occupied  in  these  schools.  The  others  were 
performing  the  work  as  a  secondary  occupation  (Nebenamt),  The  handi- 
crafts associations  of  Wuerttemberg  were  unanimously  in  favor  of  chang- 
ing these  conditions  so  that  the  great  majority  of  the  teachers  of  the 
industrial  improvement  schools — especially  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities 
— should  be  permanently  appointed  (in  Hauptamt}  by  the  state  to  devote 
their  chief  attention  to  this  work.  Under  the  new  law  this  is  a  settled 
policy. 


3931     Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools      43 

three  and  one-half  years  in  duration.  The  candidates  from 
among  the  teachers  have  already  had  the  pedagogical  training 
of  a  normal  school  course.  The  men  are  also  obliged  to  spend 
six  months  in  practical  work.  This  is  done  during  the  vacation 
months — August  and  September — of  the  ensuing  summers. 

The  choosing  of  common-school  teachers,  for  the  most  part, 
for  this  work  is  rather  the  outcome  of  reasons  of  expediency  than 
of  any  other  causes.  Skilled  practitioners  in  the  vocations,  men 
at  the  same  time  of  broad  intelligence,  who  would  make  good 
instructors,  are  equally  desirable  but  harder  to  get.  Such  men 
would  be  obliged  to  take  a  course  of  at  least  one  year  in  ped- 
agogical subjects,  whereas  the  ordinary  teacher,  lacking  thorough 
technical  training  in  vocational  subjects,  is  obliged  to  attend  a 
higher  vocational  school  for  three  and  one-half  years,  with  an 
added  six  months  of  practical  working  experience.  In  Prussia, 
teachers  have  been  prepared  for  vocational  instructing  in  three 
or  four  months,  but  the  Wuerttemberg  employers  of  skilled 
labor  would  not  agree  to  this.  They  desire  that  the  teachers 
shall  be  practical  in  the  highest  degree,  since  they  (the  em- 
ployers) must  make  sacrifices  under  the  new  law.  The  can- 
didates at  Karlsruhe  receive  an  annual  stipend  of  $240  from  the 
Wuerttemberg  government,  a  sum  quite  sufficient  for  their 
actual  needs,  since  living  expenses  and  tuition  are  low,  and  the 
two  capitals  are  only  two  hours  apart  by  fast  express. 

It  is  natural  to  ask  why  the  industrial  teachers  do  not  receive 
their  higher  training  at  the  Building  Trades  School  of  Stuttgart, 
a  school  which  in  many  particulars  is  rated  as  the  best  of  its 
kind  in  Germany.  The  answer  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  not  in 
disparagement  of  the  work  of  the  Stuttgart  Building  Trades 
School — many  of  whose  graduates  are  already  in  vocational 
teaching  in  Wuerttemberg — that  the  candidates  are  sent  to  an 
adjoining  state,  but  simply  because  Karlsruhe  has  developed 
an  unusually  good  Normal  Training  Department  (established  in 
1882)  and  is  better  equipped  for  undertaking  the  preparation 
of  teachers  of  elementary  industrial  subjects.  The  Stuttgart 
school  does  not  seem  to  care  to  undertake  this  work.  At  Karls- 
ruhe those  in  the  Normal  Department  also  take  up  subjects  in 
the  Electrical,  Mechanical,  or  Constructive  Engineering  Depart- 
ments, according  to  the  specialty  chosen.  In  addition  the 
students  have  extended  courses  in  higher  mathematics,  physics, 


44  Teachers  College  Record  [394 

descriptive  geometry,  industrial  drawing,  and  designing.  Stu- 
dents entering  the  Normal  Division  are  required  to  have  had  a 
common  normal  school  course,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  sixth 
year's  course  of  a  "middle  school."  The  earliest  age  for  entrance 
is  eighteen.  Graduates  of  a  normal  school  must  have  taught, 
also,  and  must  produce  evidence  that  they  have  worked  at  in- 
dustrial employment  for  at  least  eight  weeks.  Others  are 
required  to  show  evidence  of  at  least  six  months'  practical  work, 
The  matriculation  fee  at  Karlsruhe  has  been  $1.20;  the  tuition. 
$7.20  per  semester;  the  laboratory  fee,  $4.80  per  half-year. 

The  teachers  intended  for  the  reorganized  commercial  im- 
provement schools  will  be  sent  to  such  German  universities]  as 
Leipzig,  which  is  especially  strong  in  commercial  subjects,  for 
their  training.  Also,  a  preparatory  course  for  such  teachers,  of 
about  three  semesters  in  duration,  was  established^,  at^  Stutt- 
gart in  the  spring  of  1907.  Commercial  teaching  candidates 
will  be  selected  from  among  the  teachers  in  Realsckulen,  or  from 
practical  workers  of  rare  ability.  A  few  will  be  sent  to  America 
for  training  in  commercial  school  methods.  In  electrical 
engineering,  too,  Wuerttemberg  is  looking  to  the  United  States 
for  ideas,  and  already  has  a  student  teacher  here,  with  others 
to  follow. 

In  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  drawing  will  be  by  all  odds  the 
most  important  subject  taught  in  the  industrial  schools.  In 
both  industrial  and  commercial  schools  the  other  basic  subjects 
will  continue  to  be:  (i)  Arithmetic  (industrial  or  commercial); 
(2)  German  (including  business  correspondence  and  forms, 
suited  to  the  special  school);  (3)  bookkeeping  (industrial  or 
commercial).  With  these  as  a  basis,  the  instruction  will  be 
differentiated  in  the  necessary  directions.  As  far  back  as  1889, 
the  subjects  studied  most  were  free-hand  drawing  and  paint- 
ing— taken  by  50  per  cent,  of  the  students  in  the  168  industrial 
improvement  schools  for  men  in  .Wuerttemberg  at  the  time ;  in- 
dustrial arithmetic,  35  per  cent.;  German  (including  business 
forms,  etc.),  32  per  cent.;  special  technical  drawing,  29  per  cent.; 
geometrical  drawing,  21  per  cent.  At  the  same  time,  in  the  168 
industrial  and  commercial  improvement  schools,  the  1 5  industrial 
improvement  schools  for  women,  and  the  16  "women's  work" 
schools,  instruction  was  given  in  the  following  subjects  in  the 
number  of  schools  indicated  by  the  figures :  industrial  arithmetic, 


395]     Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools      45 

142;  commercial  arithmetic,  19;  geometry  and  geometrical  com- 
putation, 33;  descriptive  geometry,  76;  geometrical  drawing, 
152;  special  technical  drawing,  138;  free-hand  drawing,  179; 
theory  of  style  and  color,  4;  modelling  and  woodcarving,  22; 
engraving  and  chiselling,  3 ;  physics,  47 ;  chemistry,  5 ;  engineer- 
ing, 3;  mother  tongue  (esp.  business  forms),  152;  penmanship 
and  orthography,  60;  stenography,  7;  industrial  bookkeeping, 
99;  commercial  bookkeeping,  12;  exchange,  6;  French,  38; 
English,  19;  Italian,  2 ;  politico-economic  subjects,  34;  com- 
mercial geography  and  history,  20 ;  German  literature,  6 ;  house- 
keeping materials,  2;  hygiene,  2.  The  various  subjects  were 
still  further  differentiated  into  courses  intended  for  single  or 
allied  industries. 

The  program  of  the  Stuttgart  Industrial  School  at  the  present 
time,  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind,  is  outlined  in  another  chapter. 
When  the  new  plan  is,  in  force,  what  are  known  as  common 
school  subjects  will  be  eliminated  from  the  programs  wherever 
possible.  That  is,  when  arithmetic  is  taught,  it  will  be  in- 
dustrial or  commercial  arithmetic,  and  similarly  in  the  case  of 
the  other  subjects.  At  the  time  the  recent  law  was  enacted  an 
effort  was  made  by  representatives  of  the  Church  to  introduce 
obligatory  instruction  in  religion — such  as  the  common  schools 
of  Wuerttemberg  and  the  other  German  states  require — into 
the  programs  of  the  industrial  improvement  schools,  but  the 
attempt  failed.  In  general  the  policy  was  adopted  of  excluding 
all  general  culture  subjects.  In  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Prussia, 
an  effort  in  the  same  direction — to  exclude  the  general  culture 
subjects  from  the  curriculum  of  the  industrial  improvement 
school — has'recently  been  made.  As  late  as  1 905  Prussia  repulsed 
a  proposal  to  introduce  the  teaching  of  religion  as  an  obligatory 
subject  in  the  industrial  improvement  schools. 

The  Higher  Industrial  School  Board  of  Wuerttemberg  will  insist 
that  the  instruction  given  shall  be  spread  over  the  ten  months  of 
school  if  possible,  in  order  that  the  theory  gradually  acquired  may 
be  reinforced  step  by  step  through  practical  work  in  the  industry, 
and  that  the  whole  curriculum  may  not  be  hurled  at  the  luckless 
students  during  the  off  months  of  the  season,  when  there  is 
neither  the  opportunity  for  theory  and  practice  to  go  hand  in 
hand,  nor  the  time  to  grasp  thoroughly  the  instruction  offered. 
Effectively  opposing  the  few  near-sighted  employers  who  would 


46  Teachers  College  Record  [396 

have  the  instruction  lumped  into  the  dull  months  of  the  year 
the  Higher  Industrial  School  Board  recommends,  and  will  enforce 
in  so  far  as  is  practicable  the  provision  that  instruction  shall  be 
given  throughout  ten  months  at  the  rate  of  at  least  seven  hours 
per  week,  preferably  on  two  afternoons  out  of  each  seven  days. 
The  minimum  of  280  hours  per  year  for  three  years  is  in  lieu  of 
the  present  average  of  180  hours  for  each  of  two  successive 
years.  The  practical  work  is  to  be  done,  in  general,  in  the 
workshop  of  the  employer.  However,  the  industrial  improve- 
ment schools  of  the  larger  towns  will  be  equipped  with  their  own 
workshops,  for  special  purposes. 

The  industrial  and  commercial  improvement  school  boards 
will  continue  the  general  policy  of  demanding  a  small  tuition 
fee,  although  this  will  be  altogether  done  away  with  in  a  few 
communes.  The  fees  will  average  only  24  to  48  cents  per  term 
in  the  majority  of  the  schools.  As  it  is,  the  state  will  have  an 
increase  in  the  annual  expenditure  of  about  $60,000  to  meet, 
according  to  Minister  Weizsaecker,  by  the  year  1912,  when  the 
law  will  be  in  full  operation.  This  does  not  include  the  extra- 
ordinary items  appropriated  for  building.  Wuerttemberg  has 
for  many  years  paid  more  per  head  of  population  for  industrial 
improvement  schools  than  the  neighboring  states.  The  central 
apportionment  for  these  institutions  a  few  years  ago  averaged 
in  Wuerttemberg  approximately  $0.06;  in  Baden  $0.05;  in 
Bavaria  $0.03 ;  in  Saxony  $.0075.  At  present  the  Wuerttemberg 
central  government  pays  out  $73,000  to  $75,000  a  year  for  the 
industrial  and  commercial  improvement  schools  and  for  the 
"women's  work"  schools.  The  amount  of  tuition  paid  in  is 
somewhat  less  than  this  and  the  communal  share  in  the  mainten- 
ance is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  state.  All  three  items 
must  be  added  together  to  give  the  total  expenditure  upon  the 
schools  of  this  kind.  Tuition  fees  in  general  have  not  changed 
materially  since  1888- '89,  when  the  Stuttgart  commercial  im- 
provement school  demanded  $12  to  $14  per  year,1  and  the 
industrial  improvement  schools  were  charging  as  follows:  three 
of  them,  a  tuition  of  $3.57  to  $9.33  yearly;  one,  $2.86;  one,  $2.38 ; 
one  $2.15;  two,  $1.90;  three,  $1.42;  two,  $1.19;  fourteen,  $1.02 

i  Now  $3.60  for  compulsory  course,  or  $1.44  per  single  hour  weekly 
running  through  the  year,  when  subjects  are  chosen,  but  in  no  case  to 
xceed  $Q  per  year. 


3971      Reorganization  of  Industrial  Improvement  Schools      47 

to  $1.25,  thirty-six,  $0.58  to  $0.71;  fifty-nine,  $0.24  to  $0.58; 
forty-five,  less  than  $0.24,  or  even  no  charge  at  all.  The  chief 
argument  advanced  in  behalf  of  the  tuition  fee  is  its  beneficent 
effect  on  the  pupils  themselves,  who  are  said  to  appreciate  more 
thoroughly  that  which  they  pay  for,  even  if  the  fee  be  very  small. 
However,  the  principle  of  charging  a  tuition  fee  is  carried  out  in 
connection  with  all  the  public  schools  of  Wuerttemberg,  in 
general,  of  whatever  nature.  Communes  have  the  power  of 
doing  away  with  the  tuition,  with  the  approval  of  the  higher 
boards.  They  are  usually  expected  to  assume  the  deficit  that 
such  action  would  cause.  Stuttgart  has  in  recent  years  done 
away  with  the  tuition  in  the  common  or  "people's"  schools. 
In  such  institutions  the  tuition  is  often  as  low  as  $0.24  per  year, 
and  in  no  case  is  it  what  one  might  term  a  high  fee. 

The  question  of  the  increase  in  efficiency  through  attendance 
at  an  industrial  or  commercial  school  has  long  ago  been  placed 
beyond  the  pale. of  doubt  in  Wuerttemberg.  It  is  now  accepted 
as  a  matter  of  course,  and  some  statistics  gathered  at  first  hand 
from  employers,  apprentices,  and  parents,  by  the  present  writer, 
confirm  the  soundness  of  this  belief.  In  a  word,  the  employers 
are  uniformly  enthusiastic  over  the  results  obtained  through 
these  schools  and  the  workers  are  similarly  minded.  The 
institutions  make  it  possible  for  all,  who  are  willing,  to  obtain 
employment.  The  higher  quality  of  the  work  that  is  done 
enables  the  manufacturers  to  compete  successfully  in  the 
markets  of  the  world,  and  even  in  times  of  general  depression  to 
keep  their  workers  employed  at  a  wage  which,  for  Europe,  is 
very  good,  and  advances  according  to  skill.  For  years  it  has 
been  extremely  difficult  for  the  few  young  men  who  have  not 
had  the  advantages  of  a  vocational  school  training,  and  who 
do  not  show  a  disposition  to  avail  themselves  of  its  opportunities, 
to  obtain  work  from  intelligent  employers.  As  final  proof,  we 
must  remember  that  the  vocational  school  laws  of  Wuerttem- 
berg have  ever  been  chiefly  instigated  by  business  men,  and 
that  the  recent  advanced  legislation  in  this  direction  is  mainly 
the  work  of  employers,  guided  by  the  helpful  counsel  of  Pres- 
ident von  Mosthaf  of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and 
Commerce,  a  department  of  the  Interior  Ministry  in  this  little 
Kingdom  which  is  in  more  effective  relations  with  the  producing 
interests  of  the  country  than  any  other  agency  I  know  of  the 


48  Teachers  College  Record  [398 

world  over.     The  Educational  Ministry,  it  might  well  be  said, 
merely  furnished  the  pedagogical  trimmings  of  the  Bill. 

Some  further  discussion  of  the  part  taken  by  the  state  and 
by  the  commune  in  the  maintenance  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial improvement  schools,  and  concerning  the  salaries  of 
the  individual  teachers,  the  sale  of  objects  manufactured  in  the 
industrial  schools,  the  attitude  of  the  unions,  and  kindred  topics 
will  be  found  in  the  succeeding  chapters. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOL    OF    STUTTGART,    AND    THE    COMMERCIAL 

SCHOOLS 

Located  in  the  metropolis  of  a  kingdom  that  is  distinctly  in 
the  lead  for  the  universality  of  its  elementary  industrial  train- 
ing, the  Stuttgart  Industrial  Improvement  School,  as  an  example 
of  a  highly  developed  institution  of  its  kind,  is  worthy  of  close 
study.  In  this  industrial  center  and  capital  there  is  every 
advantage  for  obtaining  skilled  instructors.  And  the  quality 
of  the  work  done  here  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the  character  of 
the  plain  building — an  anomaly  in  Stuttgart  school  architecture 
— in  which  the  classes  are  for  the  most  part  housed.  That  it  is 
opportunity  that  draws  students  hither  is  evidenced  not  alone 
by  numbers,  but  by  the  earnestness  of  the  work  that  is  done  and 
by  the  attendance  of  many  pupils  of  advanced  years.  In  1906, 
1600  men  and  346  girls  and  women  were  in  attendance.  The 
commercial  improvement  school  is  aii  institution  entirely 
separate  in  Stuttgart.  The  Industrial  School  offers  the  oppor- 
tunity to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  the  compulsory  improvement 
school  law,  and  in  addition  gives  extended  courses  for  all  in- 
dustries and  ages.  For  some  time  it  has  afforded:  (i)  day 
courses  on  working  days;  (2)  evening  courses  on  the  evenings 
of  working  days;  (3)  special  technical  courses  for  the  separate 
trades  and  industries;  and  (4)  evening  courses  for  girls  and 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  WUERTTEMBERG 

Map  showing  the  Jo  cation  of  the  Industrial 
Improvement  Schools  Il68f>r  men. and  \5for 
girls  and  women]  and"Womeris  Work' Schools 
(16  in  number)  in  the  year  1889.  Wherevera. 
school  was  attended  also  oy  students  coming 
from  outside  the  central  town,  the  fact  is  in- 
dicated ty  d  line  ccnnecti-ng  the  tu/o  localities. 
Only  those  towns  supporting  vocational 
schools  are  found  on  this  map. 
Wuerttemberg  is  about  the  size  of  Nw  Jersey. 


399]  Industrial  School  of  Stuttgart  and  Commercial  Schools  49 

women.  The  evening  courses  classify  into  elementary  and 
special  technical  divisions.  Pupils  under  seventeen  are  at 
present  obliged  to  consult  the  direction  of  the  school  as  to 
choice  of  subjects  studied.  Any  course  taken  up  must  be 
continued  to  the  end.  Those  in  the  elementary  course  must 
study  all  subjects  belonging  to  the  division.  The  compulsory 
improvement  school  law  is  at  present  complied  with  when  a 
pupil  is:  (i)  enrolled  in  the  elementary  division;  (2)  in  the 
special  technical  division,  and  taking  at  least  100  hours  of 
scientific  subjects  per  year;  (3)  in  the  day  courses,  or  in  the 
special  courses.  Pupils  are  required  to  be  punctual  and  reg- 
ular in  attendance.  Fifteen  minutes  after  the  session  com- 
mences the  doors  are  closed  and  tardy  students  are  not  admitted 
thereafter.  But,  for  that  matter,  regularity  and  punctuality 
in  attendance  have  long  since  become  automatic  in  Wuerttem- 
berg.  The  courses  begin  October  i.  Summer  holiday  months 
are  August  and  September. 

The  1600  boys  and  men  in  attendance  at  Stuttgart  in  1906 
represented  85  separate  trades  and  industries.  Only  15  in- 
dividuals had  not  yet  chosen  a  vocation.  The  following  trades 
and  industries  were  represented  in  greatest  numbers:  mechan- 
icians, 175;  locksmiths,  171;  cabinet-makers,  150;  painters,  94; 
upholsterers  and  paper-hangers,  62;  printers,  51;  bookbinders, 
49 ;  servants  and  errand  boys,  46 ;  fine  mechanics,  45 ;  gardeners, 
43 ;  typesetters,  43 ;  carpenters,  41 ;  electrical  engineers,  41 ; 
architects,  35;  sculptors,  33;  tinsmiths  and  braziers,  25;  zinc- 
ographers,  24;  engravers,  24;  lithographers,  23;  glaziers,  22; 
masons,  21.  .Each  of  the  other  trades  and  industries  was  rep- 
resented by  less  than  twenty. 

In  the  special  technical  divisions  were  236  male  students  under 
17,  and  270  over  17;  in  the  elementary  division,  881  males 
under  17,  and  only  4  over  17;  in  the  day  and  special  courses, 
158  males  under  17,  and  51  above  that  age.  Fifty-eight  pupils 
came  regularly  from  beyond  the  city  limits. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  training  received  by  the 
1946  students  in  the  Stuttgart  Industrial  School,  prior  to  their 
confirmation  in  the  church,  is  interesting  as  indicating  the  source 
of  those  engaged  in  industrial  occupations: 


Teachers  College  Record 


[400 


Middle 

Latin 

Pupils  Enrolled 

Common 
School 

and 
'  '  Buer- 
ger"- 
School 

Real- 
School 

School 
and 
Gym- 
nasium 

Higher 
Girls' 
School 

Total 

In  the  Special  Tech- 
nical Division 

353 

74 

66 

*3 

506 

In    the    Elementary 

Division 

822 

33 

26 

4 

885 

In  the  Day  and  Spe- 

cial Courses 

155 

27 

23 

4 

209 

In    the    Courses    for 

Girls    and     Wo- 

men 

208 

21 

117 

346 

Totals 

L538 

*55 

"5 

21 

117 

1,946 

It  will  be  seen  that  fully  79  per  cent,  of  the  industrial  pupils 
are  from  the  common  schools,  and  about  one  per  cent,  had  early 
training  in  a  classical  school  for  boys. 

The  day  courses  are  divided  into  :  (a)  the  instruction  given 
in  the  public  drawing  salon  for  free-hand  drawing,  industrial 
art  drawing,  and  decorative  painting;  (b)  afternoon  instruction; 
(c)  instruction  in  water  color. 

Each  subject  in  the  first-mentioned  division  is  given  in  two 
courses,  the  one  throughout  the  year  and  the  other  a  six  months' 
course  from  October  to  May,  exclusive.  The  drawing  salon  is 
open  daily  from  8  A.M.  to  12  M.,  and  from  2  P.M.  to  4.30  P.M., 
Saturday  afternoon  excepted.  The  public  drawing  salon  is 
found  in  the  larger  towns  of  Wuerttemberg.  The  instructors 
have  their  studios  in  adjoining  rooms,  and  inspect  and  direct  as 
needed  the  individual  work  that  is  being  done  by  pupils  in  the 
larger  hall.  The  instruction  given  in  free-hand  drawing  in  the 
Stuttgart  day  course  is  intended  for  advanced  pupils.  That 
given  in  special  technical  drawing  presupposes  practical  voca- 
tional experience.  The  ten  months'  course  was  given  to  15 
pupils  in  1906,  and  the  six  months'  course  to  8  pupils.  The 
tuition  in  this  division  is  $2.40  to  $3.57  per  semester  (depend- 
ing on  time  of  entrance)  for  all  subjects.  The  day  courses  in 
technical  drawing  are  for  carpenters,  stone  cutters,  masons, 
locksmiths,  and  gardeners — geometrical  and  projective  drawing 
with  reference  to  the  trade  concerned.  Then  comes  the  working 


40 1 ]  Industrial  School  of  Stuttgart  and  Commercial  Schools  5 1 

out  of  plans  and  working  drawings  in  accordance  with  models 
and  sketches  taken  as  subject-matter. 

The  afternoon  instruction  is  given  on  four  week-days  from 
5  to  7  P.M.,  and  on  one  from  4  to  7  P.M.  All  branches  of  free- 
hand drawing  are  taught,  as  also  arithmetic,  composition,  and 
bookkeeping.  Tuition  $1.20  to  $2.40  per  semester,  giving 
access  to  all  subjects. 

The  evening  courses  have  hitherto  been  divided  into  an 
elementary  division  and  a  higher  technical  department.  The 
former  was  especially  intended  for  pupils  coming  under  the 
provisions  of  the  industrial  improvement  law,  and  will  in  the 
course  of  events  be  transferred  to  the  daytime.  The  instruction 
was  given  in  1906  during  the  six  winter  months,  from  7  to  9 
P.M.,  in  two  successive  yearly  courses  (to  be  increased  to  three). 
In  the  first  course,  those  pupils  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits  are 
received  at  the  age  of  fourteen  directly  after  their  confirmation  in 
the  church,  and  subsequent  release  from  the  common  schools. 
In  the  second  course  are  either  graduates  of  the  first,  or  pupils 
who  have  elsewhere  received  the  requisite  instruction.  Pupils 
of  the  elementary  division  are  obliged  to  take  all  the  subjects  in 
a  given  yearly  course.  For  bakers,  waiters,  cooks,  butchers, 
musicians,  dentists,  clerks,  vintners,  coachmen,  servants,  and 
errand  boys  the  instruction  in  drawing  is  optional.  The 
elementary  courses  prepare  for  the  special  technical  courses. 
The  tuition  is  $1.43  per  year.  The  first  year's  course  was  given 
in  19  parallel  classes  in  1906,  with  two  hours  each  weekly  in  free- 
hand drawing,  geometric  drawing,  industrial  arithmetic,  and 
composition,  and  one  hour  each  per  week  in  bookkeeping  and 
penmanship.  The  average  number  in  each  one  of  the  parallel 
classes  was  27.  The  second  year's  course  was  given  in  16  par- 
allel classes,  averaging  21  each,  with  two  hours  weekly  in  pro- 
jective  drawing,  arithmetic,  and  composition,  four  in  free-hand 
drawing,  and  one  in  bookkeeping.  A  course  without  drawing 
(with  civil  government  added)  was  given  to  29  pupils. 

The  courses  of  the  "technical"  division,  in  the  evening,  offer 
the  opportunity  for  intensified  instruction  along  higher  special 
lines.  Pupils  of  this  division,  whose  age  is  seventeen  or  more, 
and  who  are  sufficiently  prepared,  may  choose  their  own  sub- 
jects. Instruction  is  given  in  the  months  from  October  to  May, 
exclusive,  from  7  to  9  P.M.  The  instruction  in  drawing  and 


52  Teachers  College  Record  [402 

modelling,  however,  is  continued  throughout  the  year.  Tuition  is 
$2.40  for  six  or  eight  months,  and  somewhat  less  for  fractional 
periods.  On  the  list  of  subjects  are:  free-hand  drawing,  or- 
namental drawing,  blackboard  sketching,  modelling,  geometrical 
drawing,  protective  and  descriptive  geometry,  from  two  to  six 
hours  each  per  week;  mechanical  drawing  (6),  business  forms 
(2),  industrial  arithmetic  (4),  elementary  geometry  (4),  engineer- 
ing (4),  physics  (4),  electrotechnics  (4),  French  (6),  ornamental 
penmanship  (2),  industrial  art  ornamentation  and  style  (2), 
industrial  bookkeeping  (i),  stenography  (i),  penmanship  (i), 
civic  instruction  (i),  and  industrial  drawing  (4  to  6).  The  last- 
named  subject  is  taught  in  five  divisions  and  eight  classes  as 
follows:  (a)  For  cabinet-makers,  glaziers,  turners,  tinsmiths, 
etc.;  (b)  for  architects,  carpenters,  stone-cutters,  and  masons; 
(c)  for  locksmiths,  etc.;  (d)  for  skilled  mechanics,  electricians, 
and  watchmakers;  (e)  for  upholsterers,  paper-hangers,  and 
decorators. 

Under  the  heading  of  special  technical  work,  courses  are 
established  for  gardeners,  printers,  and  compositors,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  needs  of  such  students.  The  courses 
for  printers  and  compositors  are  given  in  the  daytime  (from  7 
to  10  A.M.)  and  the  courses  for  gardeners  partly  during  the  day 
(Sunday,  10.30  A.M.  to  12.30  P.M.)  and  partly  during  the  evening 
(on  work-days,  from  7  to  9  P.M.)  The  former  courses  continue 
throughout  the  ten  months,  whereas  the  instruction  for  gar- 
deners is  of  only  four  months'  duration.  Tuition  $1.20  and 
$1.44,  respectively.  The  gardeners  study  drawing,  painting, 
composition,  industrial  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  and  penman- 
ship. The  courses  for  printers  and  compositors  are  of  two  years, 
duration,  and  comprise  work  in  Latin  and  French  (for  compos- 
itors), German,  bookkeeping,  industrial  arithmetic,  and  drawing. 

The  courses  for  girls  and  women  are  given  in  a  "scientific" 
and  an  industrial  art  division.  The  "scientific"  department 
affords  the  regular  industrial  improvement  work  for  girls  and 
women,  whereas  a  special  industrial  art  division  occupies  the 
place  that  is  filled  for  the  other  sex  by  the  Industrial  Art  School. 
In  the  scientific  division,  composition,  bookkeeping,  arithmetic, 
and  penmanship  must  be  taken  together.  The  other  subjects — 
French,  geometric  drawing,  stenography,  English,  geography, 
history,  hygiene,  and  German  literature — are  optional.  The 


403]  Industrial  School  of  Stuttgart  and  Commercial  Schools  53 

instruction  lasts  throughout  six  months  except  in  the  case  of 
the  language  subjects,  which  extend  over  eight  months.  On 
work-days  the  instruction  is  given  between  2  and  6.30  P.M. 
The  group  subjects  named  above  were  taught  in  1906  in  eight 
divisions,  with  a  total  attendance  of  210.  Each  of  the  four 
subjects  required  two  hours  weekly,  except  penmanship,  one 
hour. 

The  industrial  art  division  for  girls  and  women  is  established 
in  a  separate  building,  but  like  the  scientific  division  is  under 
the  same  management  and  direction  (Rector)  as  the  department 
for  men.  A  large  proportion  of  the  students  of  the  industrial 
art  division  for  girls  undertake  the  work  for  their  own  pleasure, 
although  many  of  the  graduates  find  profitable  employment  in 
art  industries,  and  others,  after  a  four  years'  course,  take  the 
state  examinations  and  become  teachers  of  drawing  or  of  in- 
dustrial art.  The  winter  course  extends  over  six  months,  and 
the  summer  course  for  four.  The  instruction  is  given  in  the 
daytime.  The  tuition  depends  on  the  subjects  chosen,  but 
cannot  exceed  $6.  A  workshop,  for  practical  application  of 
the  theory  learned  in  the  classroom,  is  attached  to  the  institution. 
Fine  lacework,  wood-carving,  and  the  making  of  pottery  are 
the  principal  subjects  for  practical  effort.  The  pupils  pay  for 
the  colors.  Other  materials  are  furnished  gratis.  Spine  of  the 
products  are  sold  for  the  profit  of  the  school,  but  the  amount 
made  in  this  way  is  small.  Such  sales  occasion  no  adverse 
comment  on  the  part  of  those  regularly  employed,  as  the  school 
does  not  manufacture  articles  in  large  quantities.  It  is  all 
individual  work,  done  by  hand.  Pupils  are  paid  a  percentage 
on  what  is  sold.  Courses  are  given  in  this  division  in  elementary 
geometrical  drawing,  projective  geometry,  perspective,  free 
hand,  the  study  of  draperies,  industrial  art  drawing  and  paint- 
ing, landscape  drawing  and  water  color,  wood-carving,  art  em- 
broidery, ceramic  art  and  painting  on  glass,  studies  of  the  state 
collections,  sketching  in  the  Industrial  Museum  and  in  the  Royal 
Cabinet  of  Natural  Curiosities,  figure  drawing,  drawing  from  the 
nude,  theory  of  ornamental  and  architectural  structure,  and  the 
history  of  art. 

An  examination  of  the  official  programs  discloses  the  fact 
that  thirty -six  of  the  instructors  (out  of  about  125)  in  the  division 
for  male  students  of  the  Industrial  School  of  Stuttgart  and 


54  Teachers  College  Record  [404 

three  instructors  in  the  division  for  girls  and  women  are  skilled 
individuals  engaged  in  the  active  practice  of  the  chosen  work,  in 
addition  to  teaching.  Among  the  other  instructors  are  a  few 
principals  of  Real-  and  common  schools,  a  few  Real-school 
teachers,  and  a  larger  number  of  instructors  from  the  common 
schools.  All  are  specialists. 

The  fifteen  industrial  improvement  schools  and  divisions  for 
girls  and  women  in  1905,  in  Wuerttemberg,  enrolled  1042 
pupils.  The  number  of  these  institutions  is  about  the  same  as 
it  was  twenty  years  ago.  However,  the  "industry  schools"  for 
girls  enroll  upwards  of  twice  as  many  now  as  then,  and  are 
much  more  efficient.  A  larger  number  of  the  female  sex  also 
go  in  for  the  "women's  work"  schools,  which  have  a  total  enrol- 
ment over  six  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  industrial  improve- 
ment schools  and  divisions  for  girls  and  women.  Opportunities 
for  higher  commercial  instruction  are  offered  in  the  higher  girls' 
schools. 

Summary  of  the  chief  events  in  the  history  of  the  Stuttgart 
Industrial  School:  In  1825,  the  Sunday  Industrial  School  opened 
in  two  separate  parts  of  the  city,  and  united,  1828.  Evening 
Industrial  Improvement  School  established,  1854.  Separate 
division  for  girls  and  women  (first  in  kingdom  under  public 
schools  system)  opened  1861.  Day  courses  for  male  students 
grew  out  of  earlier  "public  drawing  salon"  courses  of  the  Central 
Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce,  and  have  been  an  integral 
part  of  the  City  Industrial  School  since  1879.  Elementary 
division  organized,  1883. 

The  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  Stuttgart  Industrial 
School,  in  the  estimates  for  1906,  were  as  follows:  Income  from 
tuition,  $4308;  expenditures,  $36,607.72  (salaries  $30,788.84; 
other  maintenance,  $5818.88).  The  city  paid  special  items 
(tuition  remitted,  etc.),  to  the  amount  of  $785.60,  and  the  bal- 
ance, $31,514.12,  was  paid  for  equally  by  the  city  and  by  the 
state.  There  were  nearly  3150  industrial  school  pupils  in  the 
greater  city.  Leaving  the  expenditures  of  the  state  out  of  con- 
sideration, the  average  cost  per  pupil  to  the  city  itself  was  about 
$6.71  in  the  older  city,  $3.57  in  the  included  suburb  of  Unter- 
tuerkheim,  and  $2.32  in  the  newly  annexed  Cannstatt. 

The  principal  of  the  Stuttgart  Industrial  School  is  paid  a 
salary  of  $1024  per  year,  with  additional  "indemnities"  amount- 


405]  Industrial  School  of  Stuttgart  and  Commercial  Schools  55 

ing  to  $190.  Next  to  the  principal,  the  instructor  in  charge 
of  the  public  drawing  salon  receives  the  highest  salary — only 
$1095  Per  year.  The  instructors  are  in  general  paid  according 
to  the  number  of  hours  taught,  at  the  usual  rate  of  about  $0.75 
per  hour  (in  Stuttgart),  ascending  to  $0.85  or  in  rare  cases  to 
about  $1.00  per  hour.  These  prices  seem  very  low  in  comparison 
with  American  rates,  but  compare  very  favorably  with  other 
pay  in  a  country  where  living  expenses  are  low.  The  usual  pay 
in  the  general  or  Sunday  improvement  schools  in  Wuerttemberg 
is  $0.24  per  hour. 

The  commercial  improvement  schools  in  Wuerttemberg  are 
five  in  number — at  Stuttgart,  Cannstatt,  Esslingen,  Heilbronn, 
and  Ludwigsburg.  Besides  these  there  are  commercial  divisions 
in  connection  with  17  industrial  improvement  schools  of  the 
kingdom.  The  school  at  Stuttgart  is  the  most  important 
one.  It  was  founded  in  1854,  and  was  taken  over  by  the  city  in 
1892.  The  most  interesting  faot  in  its  regard  is  that  it  became 
a  compulsory  school  in  1905.  Like  three  of  the  other  cities  hav- 
ing commercial  improvement  institutions,  Stuttgart  passed  a 
local  law  making  all  young  men  under  18  years  of  age  engaged 
n  commercial  pursuits  liable  for  attendance  during  three  years 
at  the  institution  named.  The  state  law  of  1906  included  the 
commercial  workers  in  the  general  compulsory  law  which  goes 
into  full  effect  from  1909  to  1912.  The  Stuttgart  commercial 
improvement  school  will  have  its  third  year  added  to  the  com- 
pulsory course  in  1907.  The  attendance  required  is  six  to  eight 
hours  per  week,  depending  upon  the  year  of  the  course.  The 
minimum  will  be  the  same  as  for  the  industrial  improvement 
schools  after  1909.  Merchants  in  Stuttgart  express  their  dis- 
pleasure at  being  obliged  to  do  without  their  employees  for  the 
required  time  each  week,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  sentiment  is 
becoming  more  favorable  to  the  new  regime  with  the  lapse  of 
time.  The  employers  are  obliged  to  pay  the  tuition  of  their 
apprentices  of  the  statutory  age.  The  amount  is  only  $3.57 
per  year. 

The  school  is  coeducational  and  has  about  one  thousand 
pupils,  of  whom  about  seventy  are  girls.  The  latter  are  said 
to  be  very  diligent  pupils.  The  students  are  housed  in  one 
building,  instead  of  being  divided  among  several  as  in  the  case 
of  the  industrial  improvement  school.  In  addition  to  the  day 


56  Teachers  College  Record  [406 

courses  for  compulsory  subjects  there  are  optional  courses  given 
in  the  mornings  (6  to  7  in  summer,  and  7  to  8  in  winter)  and 
evenings  (7  to  9).  Summer  holidays  extend  from  July  25  to 
September  5.  The  compulsory  students  may  be  freed  from 
attendance  if  they  frequent  another  school  of  equal  rank  in 
commercial  subjects,  or  whenever  they  are  able  to  pass  the  final 
examinations.  Non-attendance  is  punishable  by  fines — up  to 
$36  in  cash,  or  four  weeks  in  prison.  Note  that  the  fines  are 
levied  against  the  employer,  parent,  or  guardian  responsible  for 
the  non-attendance. 

The  lower  year  of  the  compulsory  division  contains  three 
subjects,  each  requiring  two  hours  per  week.  They  are:  busi- 
ness penmanship,  mother  tongue,  and  commercial  arithmetic. 
In  the  middle  year,  courses  are  given  in  commerce,  commercial 
correspondence,  commercial  arithmetic,  and  bookkeeping.  The 
higher  course  is  to  be  established  in  I9o7-'o8.  Elective  sub- 
jects are:  German  style,  French,  English,  Italian,  French 
commercial  correspondence,  English  commercial  correspond- 
ence, commercial  geography  and  commercial  history,  com- 
mercial and  exchange  law,  political  economy,  tariff,  stenog- 
raphy, drawing,  and  physics.  The  subjects  of  the  compulsory 
division  may  also  be  elected.  There  are  twelve  classes  in  French 
and  five  in  English  at  present.  Tuition  for  the  electives  is  $1.43 
per  week  hour  carried  through  the  year,  with  a  maximum 
charge  of  $8.57  per  annum.  Because  of  the  higher  tuition 
charges,  the  deficit  in  the  budget  of  the  Stuttgart  commercial 
school,  in  1906,  was,  in  proportion  to  attendance,  much  smaller 
than  that  of  the  industrial  school.  The  tuition  for  the  former 
institution  amounted  to  about  $6000,  and  the  final  deficit 
paid  by  the  city  was  about  $5000.  To  this  add  the  $500  deficit 
of  Cannstatt.  The  state's  share  in  the  maintenance  is  on  the 
same  basis  as  in  the  case  of  the  industrial  improvement  schools. 
The  Higher  Commercial  School  (or  College)  of  Stuttgart  is 
an  institution  occupying  in  the  three  years  of  its  lower  courses 
the  same  rank  as  a  Wuerttemberg  Real-  school  with  a  six  years' 
course,  and  in  the  particular  alone  that  it  is  authorized  to  give 
a  certificate,  upon  completion  of  the  lower  division,  releasing 
from  all  but  one  year  of  military  service,  it  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Ministerial  Division  for  Higlier  Schools.  Otherwise 
it  is  a  private  school  administered  by  a  body  of  merchants  and 


407]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce          57 

industrialists.  While  the  lower  division  is  entitled  to  add  but  a 
few  special  commercial  subjects,  the  higher  department  affords 
a  thorough  theoretical  training  for  commercial  pursuits.  The 
school  receives  a  state  subsidy  of  $500  annually,  and  a  city  grant 
of  $300.  The  tuition  is  $37.50  to  $75  per  annum.  The  institu- 
tion was  founded  in  1871  with  25  students  in  attendance. 
There  were  about  125  at  the  time  of  the  last  report — a  fifth  of 
them  in  the  higher  division.  Similar  schools  without  state 
support  are  found  in  Calw,  Kirchheim,  and  Ulm.  They  are 
allowed  to  prepare  for  the  granting  of  the  special  military 
certificate. 

CHAPTER  V 

OTHER    INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOLS,     AND    THE     CENTRAL    BUREAU    FOR 
INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  lowest  form  of  industrial  training 
in  the  Wuerttemberg  school  system  is  that  of  the  "industry 
school" — the  name  for  the  industrial  instruction  given  in  the 
common  or  "people's"  schools,  chiefly  to  girls.  For  boys,  the 
manual  training  in  the  common  schools  is  confined  mainly  to 
drawing.  Together  with  the  opportunities  offered  in  the  lower 
grades  of  the  Real-  schools  this  represents  nearly  all  that  is  done 
by  the  state  in  the  direction  of  industrial  or  commercial  instruc- 
tion for  those  under  fourteen  years  of  age.  Up  to  this  period  the 
industrial  teaching  is  systematic,  but  somewhat  restricted  in 
point  of  time.  Each  species  of  school  in  the  Wuerttemberg 
system  has  a  very  special  purpose.  That  of  the  common  schools 
is  thorough  instruction  in  religion,  and  together  with  this  a 
comprehensive  grounding  in  the  "three  R's."  The  authorities 
insist  that  this  program  shall  be  adhered  to,  and  that  the  purpose 
of  the  common  schools  shall  not  be  defeated  by  the  introduction 
of  an  undue  amount  of  vocational  instruction.  Early  differentia- 
tion of  courses  is  brought  about  in  the  choice  of  a  school,  the 
"realistic"  type  of  institution  introducing  early  the  study  of 
modern  languages,  more  mathematics  and  science,  whereas  the 
gymnasial  type  begins  early  with  the  classical  languages.  Both 
are  altogether  different  from  the  common  schools,  yet  none  of 
these  schools  gives  early  vocational  instruction.  The  proposal  to 
introduce  "preparatory  industrial  schools,"  such  as  may  be  in- 


5  8  Teachers  College  Record  [408 

stanced  by  the  Imperial  Handwerkerschulen  of  Austria,  or  the 
"pupil's  workshops  for  the  eighth  classes"  of  the  boys'  schools  in 
Munich,  admitting  students  from  the  age  of  twelve,  has  not  met 
with  favor  in  Wuerttemberg,  although  for  nearly  thirty  years  the 
state  and  the  city  of  Stuttgart  have  subsidized  a  private  venture 
of  this  kind  in  the  metropolis — the  Ritter  Industrial  Preparatory 
School.  This  institution  receives  pupils  at  the  early  age  of 
eleven,  and  affords  them  opportunity  for  training  in  industrial 
drawing  and  theoretical  subjects  until  they  enter  upon  the 
active  practice  of  an  industry.  Practical  manual  training  in 
wood  and  metal  working,  which  forms  a  feature  in  the  curricula 
of  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian  schools  cited,  is  not  found  in  the 
program  of  the  "Ritter"  establishment. 

The  industrial  and  commercial  improvement  schools,  already 
described,  take  pupils  under  the  compulsory  law  up  to  the  age 
of  eighteen,  and  in  the  larger  localities  offer  optional  courses  in 
special  technical  subjects  for  all  individuals,  having  the  pre- 
requisite training,  who  wish  to  attend.  Similar  in  technical 
rank  are  the  "women's  work"  schools.  With  the  exception  of 
two  or  three  which  are  under  the  auspices  of  unions,  they  are 
communal  institutions,  and  like  the  industrial  and  commercial 
improvement  schools  are  under  the  Royal  Commission  for 
Industrial  Improvement  Schools,  and  receive  state  as  well  as 
communal  support.  The  Royal  Commission  is  as  it  were  a 
committee  of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce 
(Interior  Department),  although  nominally  under  the  control 
of  the  Educational  Ministry.  The  influential  President  of  the 
Central  Bureau  presides  over  the  Royal  Commission  (and  its 
successor  the  Higher  Industrial  School  Council).  Its  offices  are 
in  the  magnificent  Royal  State  Industrial  Museum,  (see 
frontispiece)  the  triumphant  creation  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  Central  Bureau,  as  well  as  the  abode  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission for  Agriculture,  in  charge  of  the  agricultural  schools. 
Directly  under  the  Central  Bureau  come  the  middle  industrial 
schools — the  special  technical  institutions  (mono-technical)  for 
the  textile  industry,  weaving,  embroidery,  watchmaking,  electro- 
technics  and  fine  mechanics,  and  other  industries,  and  special 
courses  given  by  experts  under  its  auspices.  The  Building 
Trades  School,  Industrial  Art  School,  and  Technical  College  are 
directly  under  the  Educational  Ministry. 


409]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  59 

The  purpose  of  "women's  work"  schools  is  to  train  grown 
girls  and  women  in  the  field  indicated  by  the  title  of  the  insti- 
tutions. The  work  in  these  schools  includes  everything  from 
plain  sewing  to  artistic  embroidery  requiring  the  skill  that  is 
exacted  of  those  in  industrial  positions  or  of  instructors  in  these 
subjects.  There  are  33  of  these  schools  in  the  kingdom,  and  in 
1905  they  enrolled  6858  students.  Drawing  is  the  basis  for 
all  work  done  here.  The  "women's  work"  schools  originated 
in  Reutlingen.  The  first  one  grew  out  of  the  embroidering  of  a 
flag  designed  by  a  local  artist,  in  1863.  When  the  work  of  em- 
broidering the  standard  was  attempted  the  artist  found  that 
his  designs  were  not  comprehended  by  the  women  assigned  to 
the  task.  Nor  did  the  artist  understand  all  the  features  of  the 
practical  side  involved.  As  a  result,  a  short  course  in  drawing 
was  given  to  those  women  who  became  interested.  Soon  in- 
structors were  secured  to  give  courses  in  embroidery,  crocheting, 
and  knitting.  When  in  1865  the  industrial  stress  made  it 
difficult  for  the  workers  to  spare  the  necessary  time,  the  Central 
Bureau  came  to  their  relief  by  affording  stipends  for  attendance. 
In  1868,  an  "industrial  drawing  school  for  grown  girls,"  with 
a  six-months  course,  was  established.  Not  until  the  following 
year  were  the  drawing  and  the  practical  instruction  united  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  Within  five  years,  as  many  classes — for 
plain  needlework,  machine  stitching,  dressmaking,  knitting,  and 
embroidery — were  established.  Courses  in  bookkeeping,  corre- 
spondence, and  commercial  arithmetic  were  also  adjoined. 
The  Central  Bureau  equipped  the  school  with  up-to-date  ma- 
chines. From  about  this  time  the  present  name  was  adopted. 
The  Reutlingen  school  established  a  training  department,  soon 
to  be  visited  by  students  from  other  German  states  and  abroad. 
Other  "women's  work"  schools  were  established  throughout 
Wuerttemberg,  the  cities  and  towns  and  the  state  each  taking 
a  share  in  the  maintenance. 

The  local  common  councils  name  the  members  of  the  special 
board  for  each  of  these  schools,  and  the  Royal  Commission  desig- 
nates the  chairman.  The  state  pays  from  one  fourth  to  one 
third  of  the  deficit  in  the  budget  of  each  school.  The  total 
expenditure  for  such  purposes  from  the  capital  is  $10,000  to 
$12,000  annually.  Tuition  is  $3  to  $5  for  all-day  instruction 
throughout  a  three-months  course,  $2  to  $3.50  for  morning  or 


60  Teachers  College  Record  [410 

afternoon  instruction  during  a  quarter,  and  corresponding  rates 
for  a  lesser  period.     Sewing  machines  are  sometimes  rented. 

The  program  of  the  Stuttgart  school  (under  the  control  of 
the  "Swabian  Women's  Union,"  and  with  city  and  state  sub- 
sidy) includes  the  various  features  of  the  following  subjects: 
plain  sewing,  mending,  machine  stitching,  dressmaking,  pattern 
cutting,  industrial  work,  embroidery,  geometrical  drawing, 
free  hand  drawing,  industrial  art  drawing,  pedagogy,  and  methods. 
This  school,  like  the  one  at  Reutlingen,  prepares  candidates  for 
the  state  examinations  for  instructors  in  women's  handiwork. 
Three  kinds  of  state  certificates  are  issued:  (i)  the  lower  certifi- 
cate, qualifying  for  the  giving  of  instruction  in  the  women's 
handiwork  subjects  and  in  the  required  drawing  connected 
therewith,  in  the  middle  schools  and  higher  girls'  schools;  (2) 
the  higher  certificate,  admitting  to  teach  in  the  "women's  work" 
schools;  and  (3)  the  certificates  issued  for  the  special  subjects, 
dressmaking,  embroidery,  and  drawing,  and  available  in  the 
"women's  work"  schools.  The  higher  and  special  examinations 
come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Royal  Commission,  whereas 
the  lower  certificate  test  is  supervised  by  a  representative  of 
the  Educational  Ministry.  Candidates  for  the  higher  certificate 
and  the  special  certificate  in  dressmaking  must  show  proof,  of 
having  spent  two  years  in  preparation  since  obtaining  the  lower 
certificate,  and  those  examined  for  the  special  certificate  in 
embroidery  and  drawing  must  give  evidence  of  a  further  twelve- 
months study  in  addition  to  the  above.  For  the  lower  certificate 
examination,  the  candidate  must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of 
age,  and  is  required  to  pass  satisfactorily  in  all  the  details  of 
the  following  subjects:  practical  skill  in  knitting,  crocheting, 
stitching,  hemming,  underwear  manufacture,  mending,  linen- 
marking,  and  simple  machine  stitching,  drawing  of  plain  orna- 
ment, German  composition,  arithmetic,  and  methods  in  the  teach- 
ing of  handiwork.  The  subjects  of  the  higher  examination  are: 
fine  sewing,  machine  stitching,  dressmaking,  lacemaking  and 
embroidery,  geometrical  and  free-hand  drawing,  and  German 
composition.  In  each  examination  there  is  an  oral  quiz  on  the 
practical  work.  The  special  certificate  in  dressmaking  is  issued 
after  a  satisfactory  showing  in  the  details  of  designing  and  the 
making  of  the  more  difficult  costumes.  Likewise  the  test  in 
special  embroidery  and  drawing  requires  an  expert  knowledge 


4i  i]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  61 

and  practical  skill  in  these  lines  as  applied  to  the  general  field. 
In  drawing,  for  instance,  the  history  of  art,  method  in  the  teach- 
ing of  drawing,  and  the  theory  of  ornamentation  are  added  to 
the  previous  stipulations.  The  scholastic  requirements  are  low. 
The  salaries  of  instructors  in  women's  handiwork  appear  to  be 
very  moderate.  In  Cannstatt,  for  example,  the  instructors  in 
the  "women's  work"  school  commence  with  an  annual  salary 
of  $240.  The  present  head  of  the  school  is  paid  $360,  and  the 
highest  salaries  possible  in  this  locality  are  $360  for  regular 
instructors  and  $410  for  the  principal.  In  the  "industry  school" 
work  in  the  heart  of  Stuttgart  salaries  appear  to  be  about  $25 
less  for  corresponding  positions. 

Of  the  mono-technical  schools  under  the  higher  supervision 
of  the  Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce,  by  far  the 
most  important  is  the  Technicum  for  the  Weaving  Industry,  at 
Reutlingen.  Its  purpose  is  to  furnish  opportunity  for  the 
thorough  theoretical  and  practical  training  of  textile  experts, 
manufacturers  and  factory  superintendents,  pattern  designers, 
and  master  workmen  in  spinning  and  weaving,  as  well  as  to 
familiarize  workers  in  the  textile  industry  with  the  best  machines 
for  use  in  textile  manufacture,  and  their  care,  and  to  afford  to 
young  merchants  the  training  essential  for  the  buying  and  selling 
of  raw  materials,  yarn  and  other  goods.  The  buildings  are  the 
property  of  the  commune  of  Reutlingen.  The  direct  super- 
vision is  in  the  hands  of  the  Reutlingen  Weaving  Association, 
and  is  exercised  through  a  supervisory  council  consisting  of 
members  of  this  body  and  the  director  of  the  schools. 

The  South  German  Cotton  Manufacturers'  Association  takes 
a  lively  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  institution,  and  is  repre- 
sented on  its  board  of  trustees,  to  which  belong  also  the  mayor 
of  Reutlingen,  the  president  of  the  Central  Bureau,  and  the 
chairman  of  the  local  weaving  association.  From  140  to  150 
students  are  constantly  in  attendance.  The  faculty  numbers 
nine  regular  instructors,  including  the  director,  who  also  lectures 
at  the  Technische  Hochschule,  and  there  are  besides  seven  master 
workmen  to  assist  in  the  giving  of  instruction.  The  institution 
is  in  full  operation  from  7  to  12  M.  and  from  i  to  6  P.M. 

At  the  disposal  of  the  students  is  a  fine  technical  library,  and 
a  remarkable  collection  of  materials  and  models  that  is  kept 


62  Teachers  College  Record  [412 

up-to-date  through  close  relations  with  the  State  Industrial 
Museum  at  Stuttgart.  Frequent  class  visits  to  shops  and 
factories,  and  the  opportunities  of  the  Reutlingen  Industrial 
Improvement  School  for  the  study  of  modern  languages,  natural 
science,  mathematics,  and  commercial  branches,  afford  special 
facilities  for  study.  Students  entering  must  be  at  least  16  years 
of  age,  with  a  previous  education  equivalent  to  that  of  the  com- 
mon school.  October  is  the  usual  entrance  month.  The  courses 
given  are: 

(1)  Spinning,  one  year;  theoretical  and  practical  instruction 
in  the  spinning  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods.     Tuition,  $60  for 
German  citizens  and  twice  as  much  for,  foreigners.     An  extra 
half-year,  for   Germans   only,   requiring   three   years'    practical 
experience  for  entrance,  is  given  as  a  "master's  course." 

(2)  Weaving,   one  half-year  theoretical,  and  one  half-year 
with   practical   application.     The   second   semester,    open   only 
to  Germans,  presupposes  three  years  of  practical  work,  and  is 
intended  for  weaving   masters.     The   two   half-years  may  be 
taken  at  once  by  those  who  have  finished  the  course  in  spin- 
ning.    Tuition  same  as  above,  but  doubled  if  two  semesters  are 
combined. 

(3)  Operation.     A  course  of  one  year,  the  first  half  theoretical, 
dealing  with  materials,  etc.,  the  second  half  with  practice  in  the 
operation  of  looms,  etc.,  and  with  knitting.     Tuition  as  above. 
For  Germans  there  is  a  further  three-months  course  in  practical 
work. 

(4)  Pattern    designing.     A  two-years  course  in  decorative 
painting  and  designing,  with  practical  application  to  the  weav- 
ing industry,  with  instruction  as  to  use  of  machines,  and  other 
necessary  details.     Those  students  in  the  spinning,  weaving,  and 
operation  courses  are  given  instruction  in  mechanics,  the  use 
of  machines,  mechanical  drawing,  and  textile  chemistry,  as  well 
as  in  the  various  subjects  which  come  more  directly  within  the 
sphere  of  their  courses.      All  students  are  instructed  in  raw 
materials,  and   have    access   to   the   technological    laboratory. 
Certificates  are  issued  upon  examination  at  the   end  of   each 
year.      Students  pay  $10.75  to  $I7-85  Per  month  for  private 
board  and  lodging.     The  state  contributes  about  $10,000  annu- 
ally to  the  support  of  the  Technicum,  and  the  city  of  Reutlingen 
pays  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  deficit.      The  weaving 


413]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  63 

association  markets  the  products  of  the  shops  in  so  far  as 
they  are  salable. 

Several  other  weaving  schools  of  lesser  grade,  and  confined 
more  closely  to  one  branch  of  the  industry,  are  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Central  Bureau.  They  are  intended  rather  as 
apprenticeship  schools  and  pay  especial  attention  to  the  de- 
velopment of  local  industries.  Attended  by  from  twenty  to 
ninety  pupils  each  year,  they  receive  annual  appropriations  from 
the  Central  Bureau  of  from  $110  to  $2400  (besides  machinery 
and  materials)  and  are  located  at  Heidenheim  (handloom  weav- 
ing of  cotton) ,  Laichingen  (linen  damask  industry  of  the  Swabian 
Alps),  Sindelfingen  (Jacquard  weaving  of  cotton)  and  Sontheim 
(weaving  workshop  for  production  of  smooth  linen  cloth). 
Wolfschlugen,  near  Stuttgart,  has  an  embroidery  school  under 
similar  control,  for  the  development  of  the  household  industry 
in  hand  embroidery,  for  which  the  locality  is  famous.  Likewise 
the  lace-making  school  at  Koengen  receives  state  support. 
Several  small  industrial  schools  of  similar  purpose  are  entirely 
in  the  control  of  merchants,  societies,  and  private  individuals, 
without  aid  from  the  state;  such,  for  example,  as  the  Laichingen 
School  for  Hand  and  Machine  Embroidery,  under  the  auspices 
of  a  stock  company,  and  the  South  German  Tailoring  Academy  in 
Stuttgart. 

At  the  town  Schwenningen,  situated  in  a  section  of  Wuerttem- 
berg  that  is  almost  enclosed  by  Baden  and  which  lies  not  so  very 
far  from  Switzerland,  is  the  Technical  School  for  Skilled  Me- 
chanicians, which  includes  courses  in  watch-  and  clock-making 
and  electro-mechanical  work.  Unlike  the  other  technical  in- 
stitutions described  above,  this  is  a  purely  state  school.  Here 
the  ordinary  conditions  are  reversed,  and  the  commune  pays 
the  state  a  yearly  appropriation  of  about  $500  toward  the  main- 
tenance. When  the  building  was  first  erected  and  equipped 
the  commune  paid  over  to  the  state  $13,090,  and  a  Schwen- 
ningen merchant  contributed  $2400  toward  the  enterprise- 
The  annual  appropriation  of  the  state  is  about  $9000.  The 
school  was  established  in  1900,  and  has  grown  rapidly  (about 
seventy  pupils  now).  It  takes  the  place  of  apprenticeship. 
The  aim  is  to  prepare  skilled  workmen,  foremen,  and  independent 
industrialists  in  the  various  branches  that  come  within  its  scope. 
A  further  unique  feature  is  that  the  institution  is  also  destined 


64  Teachers  College  Record  [414 

to  furnish  the  Central  Bureau  expert  advice  and  reports,  and 
duplicate  models — all  to  be  used  for  the  promotion  of  the  in- 
dustries concerned,  in  Wuerttemberg. 

The  faculty  consists  of  the  director,  one  other  principal  in- 
structor, three  assistant  teachers,  and  four  master  workmen. 
These  with  the  mayor  and  two  representatives  of  industry  make 
up  the  local  school  committee.  Instruction  is  given  in  a  threel 
years  course,  and  an  additional  improvement  course  of  one  year 
for  those  who  already  have  the  journeyman's  certificate,  and  who 
have  done  practical  work  for  at  least  two  years.  Entrance  to 
the  first  year  of  the  regular  course  is  by  examination.  Candi- 
dates are  required  to  be  at  least  fourteen  years  of  age  and  to 
have  completed  a  course  of  training  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
common  school.  The  final  examinations  of  the  first  and  second 
years  are  the  entrance  tests  for  the  succeeding  terms.  The 
examination  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  gives  to  the  successfu- 
candidates  (n  skilled  mechanics  and  4  watchmakers  in  1906)  a 
certificate  permitting  them  to  undertake  the  direction  of  appren- 
tices, and  the  final  examination  for  the  improvement  course  is 
equivalent  to  the  state  test  for  master  workmen  (4  skilled  me- 
chanics successful  in  1906).  Tuition,  $6  annually  for  Germans, 
$24  for  foreigners.  "Guests"  and  "listeners"  are  also  admitted 
to  certain  courses,  by  paying  the  fee.  The  total  cost  of  board, 
lodging,  and  school  tuition  and  expenses  for  a  German  resident 
is  from  $95  to  $167  per  annum.  The  school  begins  in  May, 
Summer  holidays  are  August  15  to  September  15.  Nearly  all 
the  materials  used  in  the  school  are  furnished  gratis  to  the  pupils. 
The  products  of  the  institution  are  retained  by  it.  (Further 
description  and  the  program  omitted). 

The  Technical  School  for  the  Book  Printing  Trades,  at 
Stuttgart,  is  under  the  auspices  of  the  Union  of  Proprietors  of 
Book  Printing  Establishments  in  that  city,  but  receives  about 
$500  yearly  from  the  state  and  the  municipality  respectively. 
The  balance  of  an  annual  expenditure  of  some  $2500  is  borne 
by  the  Union.  Tuition  fees  are  $3  per  annum  for  apprentices 
— one  half  of  this  to  be  paid  by  the  employers.  The  members 
of  the  Union  have  obligated  themselves  to  send  their  apprentices 
to  this  school.  Others  may  attend  also.  The  school  is  not 
destined  to  take  the  place  of  apprenticeship,  but  to  complete 
and  augment  the  practical  shopwork.  It  is  attended  chiefly 


415]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  65 

by  pupils  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  their  apprenticeship, 
since  during  the  first  and  second  years  they  attend  the  printing 
division  of  the  City  Industrial  School.  Courses  are  given  in  the 
Technical  School  on  two  evenings  of  the  week,  from  6  to  8  or 
from  7  to  9.  There  are  about  108  pupils,  almost  equally  divided 
between  the  sections  for  typesetting  and  for  presswork. 

The  Apprenticeship  Workshop  for  the  Tanning  Industry 
(1906),  at  Metzingen,  is  intended  to  take  the  place  of  apprentice- 
ship and  to  prepare  foremen  for  this  vocational  field.  The 
special  instruction  has  been  arranged  for  in  connection  with  a 
private  industry,  and  it  is  left  to  the  head  of  that  industry  to 
furnish  the  necessary  materials  and  to  sell  the  product.  The 
course  is  three  years  in  duration,  but  the  theoretical  instruction 
of  the  first  two  years  is  given  in  connection  with  the  local  in- 
dustrial improvement  school.  The  state  makes  an  annual  grant 
of  $1700. 

The  Technical  School  for  the  Working  of  Precious  Metals, 
at  Gmuend,  is  the  creation  of  the  present  year  (1907).  It  has 
some  of  the  features  of  an  industrial  art  school.  As  at  Schwen- 
ningen,  the  greater  part  of  the  product  will  be  kept  for  exhibition 
purposes.  The  most  of  the  remainder  will  be  remelted.  Like 
the  other  special  technical  institutions  this  is  a  day  school. 

The  sale  of  the  products  of  the  various  state  schools,  on  the 
whole,  amounts  to  very  little.  There  is  not  much  opposition 
to  such  sale,  on  the  part  of  unions  or  employers.  In  the  interest 
of  the  schools  the  product  must  constantly  change  in  character, 
so  as  to  give  diversity  of  experience  to  the  students.  This  action 
forestalls  any  possible  wholesale  production.  There  is  no  ob- 
jection whatever  to  the  sale  of  objects  made  by  hand. 

To  complete  the  list  of  lower  industrial  schools  under  the 
Central  Bureau,  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  the  names  of  the  Prac- 
tical Engraving  School  at  Heilbronn  and  of  the  Winter  Building 
Trades  Schools  at  Biberach  and  Heilbronn,  which  still  form  a 
part  of  the  industrial  improvement  schools  of  those  localities. 
Some  industries  not  represented  by  a  school  are  nevertheless 
aided  by  means  of  special  courses  given  through  the  agency  of 
the  Central  Bureau.  The  carriage  industry  is  unimportant  in 
Wuerttemberg.  There  is  no  school  for  shoemakers,  but  courses 
of  about -four  weeks'  duration,  eight  hours  per  day,  are  given  to 
master- workmen  and  to  the  older  journeymen  in  such  centres 


66  Teachers  College  Record  [416 

as  Ulm  and  Stuttgart,  and  especially  at  Tuttlingen.  There  is  no 
tuition  fee.  The  pupils  furnish  the  materials.  There  is  no 
machine  work,  although  instruction  for  the  prevention  of  acci- 
dents is  a  part  of  the  course. 

There  are  a  few  private  industrial  schools  in  Wuerttemberg 
in  connection  with  large  corporate  industries,  and  wholly  main- 
tained by  the  proprietors,  on  the  plan  of  the  schools  of  R.  H. 
Hoe  &  Company  or  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Company 
of  this  country.  Such,  for  example,  is  that  of  the  Daimler 
Automobile  Company  at  Untertuerkheim.  The  plant  here 
employs  3000  men,  and  is  reputed  to  be  the  greatest  of  its  kind 
in  Germany.  At  Esslingen  the  Maschinenfabrik  also  has  its 
own  school.  Likewise  the  Metalfabrik  of  Geislingen  and  the 
Bruderhaus  Furniture  Factory  at  Reutlingen.  No  extended 
theoretical  courses  are  given  by  the  private  industrial  institutions. 

Not  content  with  the  work  of  the  vocational  schools  alone, 
the  Central  Bureau  has  for  many  years  devoted  much  attention 
to  the  giving  of  special  industrial  courses  in  the  chief  centres 
of  technical  activity.  Historically,  the  plan  is  very  old  in 
Wuerttemberg.  Over  fifty  years  ago,  travelling  instructors 
were  sent  out  to  give  courses  in  handloom  weaving,  of  two 
months'  duration,  in  the  localities  where  this  industry  had  at- 
tained some  importance.  About  ten  years  later  chemical 
courses  were  established  here  and  there  for  metalworkers  and 
soapmakers.  During  the  last  ten  years  a  great  many  "the- 
oretical-technical" and  "practical-technical"  courses  on  the 
plan  of  Baden's  have  been  conducted  throughout  Wuerttem- 
berg by  the  agency  of  the  Central  Bureau.  Also,  industrial 
art  courses  and  instruction  for  the  building  trades,  for  master- 
workmen,  are  under  its  auspices.  Among  others,  "practical- 
technical"  courses  are  given  in  the  following  branches;  hand- 
gilding,  horse-collar  making,  interior  decoration,  shoemaking, 
cutting,  graining,  marbled  binding,  electrical  and  interior 
installation,  cabinet-making,  bookbinding,  tailoring,  watch- 
making. The  courses  are  from  three  to  twenty -one  days  in 
duration  (eight  hours  per  day) ,  and  are  open  only  to  those  already 
possessing  considerable  skill  in  the  special  branch.  The  in- 
structors are  exceptional  master  handicraftsmen  or  professional 
teachers.  The  "practical-technical"  courses  cost  the  state 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $1300  yearly,  with  the  addition  of 


417]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  67 

about  $700  for  stipends  to  those  attending.  The  duration  of 
the  courses  is  not  as  long  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  them  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  instruction,  but  considering  the  needs 
of  both  workmen  and  employers  the  golden  mean  has  been 
chosen.  In  Austria,  the  work  of  this  kind  is  carried  on  for 
from  six  to  eight  weeks,  and  in  such  cities  of  Germany  as  Han- 
over and  Cologne  the  Austrian  model  has  been  imitated.  In 
Wuerttemberg,  up  to  the  present,  it  has  seemed  impracticable 
to  lengthen  the  courses. 

The  "theoretical-technical"  courses  are  given  on  holiday 
afternoons,  and  not,  like  the  "practical-technical "  work,  through- 
out successive  day  periods.  In  one  branch  of  the  work,  the 
different  industries  have  been  taken  up  in  successive  years,  and 
the  instruction  is  given  to  the  £lite  of  each  type:  soapmakers, 
metalworkers,  house  painters,  photographers,  coopers,  and  dis- 
tillers, brewers,  bakers,  builders,  decorative  painters.  Special 
chemical  courses  are  also  established.  Industrial  art  for  decora- 
tive painters  is  taught.  Courses  for  janitors  and  building  su- 
perintendents are  given. 

Under  the  Central  Bureau  there  are  also  courses  for  teach- 
ers, master- workmen,  and  merchants,  in  industrial  bookkeeping. 
These  are  continuous  throughout  ten  or  twelve  days. 

A  considerable  number  of  industrial  courses  are  conducted 
under  the  auspices  of  unions.  The  Central  Bureau  aids  by  paying 
about  one-third  of  the  deficit  after  tuition  and  donations  have 
been  applied  toward  the  expenditures.  About  a  dozen  courses 
are  established  annually  by  the  Central  Bureau  in  the  manner 
of  conducting  handicrafts  associations,  with  especial  attention 
to  the  importance  of  such  unions  for  the  industries,  instruction 
in  bookkeeping,  etc. 

Annual  stipends  paid  out  by  the  Central  Bureau  for  attend- 
ance at  industrial  schools  in  various  localities  amount  to  about 

$1000. 

There  are  in  Wuerttemberg  eight  boards  of  trade  (Handels- 
kammern)  and  four  great  handicrafts  boards  of  industry  (Hand- 
werkskammerri) ,  at  Stuttgart,  Heilbronn,  Ulm,  and  Reutlingen, 
the  boards  of  industry  representing  over  one  hundred  unions 
of  small  industrialists  scattered  throughout  the  kingdom.  The 
boards  of  industry,  organized  by  the  state,  have  fixed  upon 


68  Teachers  College  Record  [418 

three  years  as  the  usual  term  of  apprenticeship.  Since  1899, 
in  imitation  of  Baden  and  Switzerland,  the  state  has  supported 
a  number  of  apprenticeship  workshops,  in  connection  with 
various  industries,  and  largely  equipped  with  up-to-date  tools 
and  machinery  through  the  Central  Bureau.  There  were  185 
such  workshops  in  1905,  with  201  apprentices,  representing  27 
industries  as  diversified  as  could  well  be  imagined.  The  state 
expends  $3000  per  year  for  the  upkeep  of  the  workshops,  and 
besides  furnishes  an  inspector,  the  " travelling  instructor." 
The  master-workman  having  a  state-aided  apprenticeship 
workshop  must  give  board  and  lodging  in  his  own  household  to 
the  apprentice,  and  must  not  require  many  errands  outside 
of  the  regular  work  in  the  industry.  He  must  instruct  the 
apprentice  and  demand  good  conduct  and  regular  attendance 
at  church.  Each  increase  in  the  number  of  apprentices  must 
have  the  approval  of  the  Central  Bureau.  Samples  of  work 
must  be  furnished  to  the  Central  Bureau  each  year  for  the  ex- 
hibit at  Stuttgart.  Prizes  are  given.  Over  800  apprentices 
take  part  annually  in  the  exhibit — all,  except  those  having  the 
privileges  of  the  state-installed  workshops,  of  their  own  volition. 
In  order  to  be  eligible  the  apprentice  must  have  worked  at  the 
industry  for  at  least  nine  months.  Between  50  and  60  industries 
are  represented  each  year,  and  the  exhibits  are  carefully  in- 
spected by  about  10,000  interested  persons.  The  industries 
having  the  greatest  number  of  exhibits  are  usually  those  of  the 
cabinet-makers,  locksmiths,  mechanics,  painters,  smiths,  barbers, 
braziers,  wagon-makers,  tailors,  turners,  bookbinders,  wood- 
carvers,  coopers,  saddlers,  and  shoemakers. 

At  the  end  of  his  apprenticeship  the  young  workman  is 
obliged  to  take  the  examinations  in  industrial  (or  commercial) 
subjects  and  to  produce  a  specimen  of  his  handiwork.  The 
yearly  cost  of  the  latter  test  amounts  to  about  $8000.  Of  this 
sum  the  state  contributes  something  over  $2000  each  year. 
The  remaining  cost  is  borne  by  the  boards  of  industry.  The 
latter  receive  an  appropriation  from  the  state  (for  adminis- 
trative purposes  mainly)  of  $5000  annually. 

In  choosing  a  trade,  the  tendency  in  Wuerttemberg,  as  in  all 
Old  World  countries,  is  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the  parent. 
However,  advice  is  usually  sought  from  the  head  of  the  local 
improvement  school,  who  is  kept  informed  as  to  the  needs  of 


419]         Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  69 

the  country  by  the  Central  Bureau,  or  from  the  head  of  a  special 
school,  the  "travelling  instructor"  or  inspectors.  No  country 
has  a  better  system  for  keeping  tab  on  the  new  demands  that 
arise  in  industry  and  commerce  and  communicating  its  findings 
to  the  localities. 

For  the  further  dissemination  of  industrial  instruction  and 
of  news  in  this  domain  the  Central  Bureau  issues  a  weekly 
periodical,  Das  Gewerbeblatt,  which  reaches  12,000  subscribers 
and  is  on  file  in  every  workmen's  club  or  industrial  headquarters 
in  the  land.  It  is  a  most  useful  publication,  in  close  touch  with 
the-  needs  of  the  country  through  the  state  inspectors  and  the 
representatives  of  unions  and  boards  of  industry  who  are  its 
contributors.  The  yearly  cost  of  the  journal  is  only  $.24  in 
clubs  of  three  or  more.  The  state  pays  the  annual  deficit  of 
about  $5000  for  its  publication. 

One  of  the  most  important  agencies  of  industrial  instruction 
under  the  Central  Bureau  is  the  "travelling  industrial  instructor" 
(Wanderlehrer) .  This  official  gives  about  seventy  lectures  in  the 
various  centres  annually.  He  inspects  the  apprentice  workshops, 
takes  notes  of  the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  and  determines 
what  additions  of  machinery,  tools,  or  exhibit  material  are 
necessary.  He  is  the  advisory  agent  and  industrial  barometer  of 
the  Central  Bureau.  He  helps  to  arrange  the  state  exhibits 
of  apprenticeship  work,  supervises  the  courses  for  master-work- 
men, and  in  some  cases  himself  gives  instruction.  On  invitation 
he  meets  with  the  unions,  and  at  all  times  urges  them  to  give 
special  industrial  courses  for  master-workmen  and  for  industrial 
teachers,  and  furnishes  information  as  to  the  available  special 
instructors.  He  investigates  household  industries,  writes  weekly 
for  the  state  industrial  journal,  and  is  altogether  as  busy  as  a 
man  could  well  be.  For  his  expert  services  in  this  country  the 
state  pays  only  $1800  annually. 

Besides  the  magnificent  State  Industrial  Museum  at  Stuttgart, 
under  the  direct  management  of  the  Central  Bureau,  there  are 
four  other  industrial  museums  in  Wuerttemberg  receiving  some 
aid  from  the  state.  These  are  the  Special  Industrial  Museum 
for  the  Fine  Metal  Industry,  at  Gmuend,  and  the  industrial 
museums  of  Ulm,  Spaichingen,  and  Heilbronn.  The  remarkable 
thing  about  any  and  all  of  the  Wuerttemberg  industrial  museums 
is  the  fact  that  they  make  a  strong  point  of  the  best  in  up-to 


70  Teachers  College  Record  [420 

date  industrial  methods,  use  of  material,  and  workmanship; 
and,  while  they  are  repositories  of  much  that  is  classic,  they 
appear  to  have  purposely  neglected  those  exhibits  which  have 
chiefly  an  antiquarian  rather  than  a  practical  interest. 

Other  aid  in  the  direction  of  industrial  betterment  afforded 
by  the  Central  Bureau  includes  the  following:  (i)  Books  are 
loaned  from  the  library  of  the  State  Industrial  Museum  to  local 
libraries  and  to  unions,  or  are  purchased  outright  for  them  by 
the  same  agency;  (2)  free  technical  advice  is  furnished  (especially 
to  builders) ;  (3)  the  instructive  yearly  reports  of  the  Wuerttem- 
berg  boards  of  industry  are  published  and  given  a  wide  circu- 
lation; (4)  tests  of  boilers  and  engines  are  made  gratis  by  the 
engineering  laboratory  of  the  technical  college,  through  the 
aid  of  an  appropriation  granted  by  the  Central  Bureau;  (5)  new 
and  valuable  models  and  patterns  are  made  known  to  the  various 
industries  through  illustration  and  description  in  the  industrial 
journal  of  the  state,  or  by  advertisement;  (6)  local  industrial 
expositions  are  arranged  for,  and  the  state  takes  part  in  foreign 
expositions  of  the  kind;  (7)  large  stipends  are  afforded  for  the  visit- 
ing of  foreign  industrial  expositions ;  (8)  grants  are  made  for  the 
stimulation  of  industries,  or  for  their  introduction  (recently  these 
have  been  fewer  and  smaller) ;  (9)  travelling  stipends  are  allotted, 
especially  for  the  visiting  of  the  industrial  exhibits  at  Stuttgart, 
Karlsruhe,  Munich,  and  other  places  easily  reached,  and  also 
for  trips  to  Paris,  London,  and  America;  (10)  medals  are  given 
for  long  and  efficient  service  in  industries  (in  1904  bestowed 
upon  no  industrial  workers);  (n)  finally,  there  is  an  extensive 
industrial  inspection  system  costing  $18,000  per  annum,  and 
(12)  the  work  of  collecting  and  publishing  industrial  statistics. 

In  this  abbreviated  report,  the  crowning  glory  of  the  Central 
Bureau,  mentioned  frequently  in  the  above  paragraphs,  may 
only  be  given  a  word.  I  refer  to  the  State  Industrial  Museum 
at  Stuttgart.  Having  had  occasion  to  visit  the  principal  mu- 
seums of  all  kinds  at  home  and  abroad,  I  know  of  none  that  is 
more  efficient,  nor  which  houses  more  diversified  and  helpful 
activities  held  together  by  one  consistent  and  unique  purpose 
— the  universal  instruction  and  industrial  betterment  of  the 
people.  The  entire  range  of  industrial  propaganda  discussed 
above  has  its  effective  headquarters  in  this  building,  and  it 


42 1]          Central  Bureau  for  Industry  and  Commerce  71 

manifold  functions  are  co-ordinated  and  made  mutually  helpful 
through  the  Central  Bureau.  Though  established  in  a  mag- 
nificent new  building,  and  now  as  always  making  much  of  the 
display  of  latest  productions  in  the  realm  of  industry  and  in- 
dustrial art,  this  museum  is  in  reality  the  oldest  of  its  kind  in 
Germany  (1849),  an(i  its  pedagogical  exhibit  is  the  oldest  per- 
manent display  of  the  sort  in  existence  anywhere.  An  in- 
spection of  the  museum  soon  convinces  that  the  central  thought 
governing  its  organization  and  management  is  the  application 
of  the  best  ideas  of  both  past  and  present  to  present  needs.  It 
is  a  rare  illustration  of  what  a  live  and  vital  institution  a  museum 
can  be.  The  collections  are  chiefly  concerned  with  raw  and 
partly  manufactured  materials;  the  chemical  indu  stries;  in 
dustrial  and  industrial- art  objects  from  the  precious  and  baser 
metals;  pottery,  glass  and  crystal  ware;  furniture,  and  interior 
decoration;  clocks  and  musical  instruments  (if  anything  more 
artistic  and  poetical  than  the  special  music  room  has  been  caught 
in  wood  or  metal,  I  have  not  seen  it) ;  wood  and  ivory  carving; 
work  in  leather;  bookbinding  and  artistic  books;  the  graphic 
arts;  weaving  and  knitting,  laces,  embroidery;  carpets  and 
tapestries;  power  and  hand  machinery;  devices  for  protection 
against  accidents;  instruments  of  precision;  weapons;  electro- 
technical  machinery  and  apparatus;  models  in  the  greatest 
variety . 

Especially  important  is  the  collection  of  textile  materials, 
French  and  English  weaving  patterns,  etc. — 300,000  samples, 
catalogued  and  indexed.  There  are  about  10,000  Chinese 
and  Japanese  industrial  art  objects,  selected  with  rare 
discernment.  An  interesting  collection  is  that  of  the  Black 
Forest  wall  clocks  ("grandfather's  clocks")  of  various  periods. 
There  is,  besides,  one  of  the  best  collections  of  watches  in  the 
world,  and  an  equally  valuable  collection  of  building  materials. 
For  the  business  man  or  the  student  of  industry  there  are  100 
directories  from  all  over  the  world,  about  500  catalogs  of  ex- 
positions, and  10,000  price  lists  arranged  according  to  industry 
and  country.  A  vast  number  of  art  models  in  plaster  serve 
for  the  industrial  art  schools  throughout  the  country.  They 
are  manufactured  in  the  building.  There  is  no  charge  for  ad- 
mission to  the  museum,  free  guides  are  furnished,  and  Wuerttem- 
berg  industrialists  may  have  the  services  of  experts  without 


72  Teachers  College  Record  [422 

cost.  The  library  is  a  well  chosen  collection  of  technical  ma- 
terial, consisting  of  75,000  bound  volumes  and  55,000  pamphlets. 
The  library  department  is  classed  in  five  divisions:  science,  art, 
collection  of  photographic  art  material,  educational  museum 
with  especial  reference  to  the  industrial  and  commercial  im- 
provement schools,  and  the  reading-room  for  industrial  news- 
papers and  magazines  (300).  The  chemical  laboratory,  with 
its  three  or  four  experts  constantly  employed  in  making  tests 
of  raw  materials,  etc.,  for  the  various  Wuerttemberg  industries, 
is  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice.  The  popular  chemical 
courses  given  in  the  lecture  room  of  the  museum  prove  invalu- 
able to  the  pupils  of  the  City  Industrial  Improvement  School, 
and  to  the  other  individuals  who  are  admitted.  It  is  the  appli- 
cation to  industry  that  is  always  emphasized  here. 

Principal  References:  Die  Gewerbebefoerderung  im  Koenigreich  Wuert- 
temberg, Stuttgart,  1905;  Die  allgemeinen  Grundlagen  der  Kultur  der 
Gegenwart,  Lexis  and  others,  Berlin,  1906;  Die  Entstehung  und  Ent- 
wicklung  der  Gewerblichen  Fortbildungsschulen  und  Frauenarbeitsschulen 
in  Wuerttemberg,  Stuttgart,  1889;  Consular  Reports  of  England  and 
America,  esp.  since  1900;  Consular  Year  Book;  Regierungsblatt  juer  das 
Koenigreich  Wuerttemberg,  esp.  since  1900;  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  juer  das 
deutsche  Reich,  1906-' 7;  Wuerttemberg  Statistik,  and  Schulstatistik;  Pub- 
lications of  the  K.  Wuertt.  Statistischen  Landesamts;  Jahresberichte  of  the 
various  city  systems  of  schools,  and  of  each  special  type  of  school;  Ent- 
wurf  eines  Gesetzes  betreffend  die  Gewerbe  und  Handelsschulen,  Beilage  195, 
January  20,  1905,  Wuertt.  Chamber  of  Deputies;  Bericht  der  Volksschul- 
kommission  (concerning  the  preceding)  May  26,  1906;  V erhandlungen  der 
Wuertt.  Kammer  der  Abgeordneten,  esp.  Sitzungen  Nos.  141,  142,  i6p,  170, 
171,  and  172 — February  to  June — 1906;  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im 
Deutschen  Reich,  Berlin,  1904;  Uebersicht  ueber  die  Verwaltung  und  den 
Stand  der  Gemeindeangelegenheiten,  Stuttgart,  from  1901;  Official  Publica- 
tions of  educational  Ministries  in  Europe  for  the  year  1906;  Encyclopaedias 
of  Rein,  Schmidt  and  Buisson;  Publications  of  the  Wuerttemberg  Histori- 
cal Society;  Programs,  etc.,  of  various  schools  in  Wuerttemberg,  and  in 
other  states;  Private  administrative  records  of  certain  schools  and  organi- 
zations; Personal  notes. 


ALUMNI  DEPARTMENT 

Committee  of  the  Alumni  on  Publication 

Ernest  N.  Henderson,  Ph.D.,  1903,  Chairman. 

Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn. 
Ellen  Yale  Stevens,  Diploma,  1893, 

Brooklyn  Heights  Seminary,  18  Pierrepont  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Emily  Brinckerhoff  Brown,  Diploma,  1901. 

Bretton  Hall,  Broadway  and  86th  St.,  New  York  City. 
Ruth  E.  Dowling,  B.S.,  1903. 

New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers,  New  York  City. 

The  Teachers  College  Library  Compared  with  European  Institutions 
of  the  Kind. — The  writer  of  the  industrial  education  monograph  in  this 
issue,  who  has  enjoyed  exceptional  opportunities  for  a  study  at  first 
hand  of  the  principal  educational  libraries  and  museums  of  America  and 
Europe, — as  a  student  of  comparative  education,  European  agent  of 
Bryson  Library,  and  European  Commissioner  for  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
ion  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching, — writes  of  the  Bryson  Library: 

"Bryson  Library,  of  Teachers  College,  is  best  compared  with  the 
Musee  Pedagogique  of  Paris,  the  Pestalozzianum  at  Zurich,  and  the 
Central-Bibliothek,  or  Comenius-Stiftung,  in  Leipzig.  In  the  brief  space 
allotted,  the  less  important  though  very  excellent  pedagogical  libraries 
of  London,  Brussels,  Berlin,  Dresden,  Copenhagen,  Munich,  Prague,  Buda- 
Pesth,  Vienna,  Berne,  and  Madrid,  not  to  omit  Breslau,  Freibourg,  and 
Amsterdam,  may  merely  be  mentioned. 

"  Teachers  College  leads  in  the  number  of  professional  books  used  per 
annum.  The  M.usee  Pedagogique,  next  in  importance  in  the  loaning  of 
professional  works,  gave  out  a  total  of  28,796  books  last  year.  Of  these, 
a  total  of  10,021  were  consulted  in  the  library.  Bryson  Library  does 
not  record  the  number  of  books  consulted  in  the  library — except  in  the 
case  of  certain  reference  works — since  the  students  have  free  access  to  the 
library  stacks.  However,  Bryson  Library  loaned  nearly  42,000  works 
last  year,  whereas  the  number  consulted  on  the  premises  is  probably 
much  in  excess  of  this  figure.  At  Paris,  Leipzig,  and  Zurich,  all  books 
used,  whether  at  home  or  sur  place,  are  registered  at  the  desk — except  the 
new  arrivals  at  the  Pestalozzianum  and  the  Central-Bibliothek.  The 
inestimable  advantage  of  free  access  to  the  library  shelves,  enjoyed  by 
Teachers  College  students,  is  almost  unknown  in  the  pedagogical  libraries 
of  the  European  Continent.  More  graduate  students  investigate  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  state  and  city  systems  of  education  at  Teachers  College 

73 


74  Teachers  College  Record 

than  at  any  other  institution  in  the  world,  and  doubtless  appreciate  the 
special  advantages  afforded  by  the  excellent  library  facilities.  If  com- 
plaint is  made  here,  try  the  European  libraries  and  learn  contentment 
with  Teachers  College  Library.  As  helpful  and  courteous  as  one  might 
expect,  the  employees  of  the  European  libraries  labor  under  systems  that 
make  it  impossible  for  them  to  bring  the  seeker  and  the  book  together  with 
promptness,  in  many  instances.  However,  conditions  in  the  European 
pedagogical  libraries  are  better  than  in  the  large  general  libraries.  For 
example,  one  afternoon,  in  Berlin,  I  had  need  of  a  book  which  could  only 
be  obtained  in  the  Imperial  Library.  Provided  with  a  special  letter  from 
a  higher  authority,  I  sought  out  the  head-librarian,  who  kindly  informed 
me  that  he  would  break  down  the  barriers  of  convention  and  secure  the 
book  for  me  with  unusual  promptness.  It  was  then  two  o'clock.  To 
avert  the  inconvenience  of  my  waiting  a  day  or  so,  he  agreed  to  have  the 
book  for  me  by  four  o'clock — a  two-hours  delay.  It  is  thus  that  the  student 
learns  in  the  European  library  'to  labor  and  to  wait.' 

"  Of  the  four  libraries  under  comparison  here,  the  one  at  Leipzig  has 
by  far  the  largest  number  of  books.  The  Musee  Pedagogique,  with  a 
little  over  one  half  as  many  volumes  as  Leipzig,  contains  more  works 
strictly  professional  in  character.  Bryson  Library,  third  in  the  total 
number  of  books,  stands  easily  first  in  the  completeness  of  its  collection 
of  educational  volumes  issued  in  the  various  countries  during  the  past 
six  years.  It  rivals  Paris  and  Zurich  in  the  number  of  current  educa- 
tional periodicals  on  file.  The  Musee  Pedagogique  has  at  one  time  or 
another  given  a  trial  subscription  to  every  educational  periodical  pub- 
lished, but  only  retains  a  few  of  the  best.  All  are  under  lock  and  key,  to 
be  obtained  only  by  filling  out  a  bulletin.  Each  reading  table  at  the 
Musee  Pedagogique  is  supplied  with  paper-knives,  and  readers  are  obliged 
to  cut  the  leaves  of  the  books  when  first  used.  Imagine  the  amount  of 
actual  work  you  can  do  when  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  consult  a 
half-dozen  volumes  that  have  not  been  called  for  previously! 

"  The  best-selected  libraries  are  at  Teachers  College  and  the  Musee 
Pedagogique.  Teachers  College  now  manages  to  secure  each  new  educa- 
tional publication  of  importance  within  a  short  time  after  it  is  issued.  In 
this  respect  the  other  libraries  have  not  been  successful  in  the  same 
degree.  But  it  is  none  the  less  surprising  to  learn  that  Bryson  Library 
has  a  better  collection  of  French  educational  books  of  the  past  half-dozen 
years  than  Paris,  and  that  it  is  better  supplied  with  similar  German 
works  than  any  German  library,  and  the  same  applies  to  England  and  to 
several  other  countries.  At  least  the  statement  was  true  at  the  time 
this  was  written. 

"  Those  who  have  noted  that  the  employees  of  the  European  libraries 
are  invariably  men,  will  be  interested  in  the  fact  that  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment is  conducting  a  library  training  school  for  women,  who  will 
eventually  be  added  to  the  library  staffs." 

Present  opportunities  for  Industrial  Education  in  the  United  States: — 

In  Charities  and  the  Commons  for  October  5th,  which  is  a  number  devoted 


Alumni  Department  75 

to  the  "Movement  for  Industrial  Education,"  one  obtains  a  good  re'sume' 
of  the  opportunities  for  industrial  training  which  are  open  at  present  to 
the  American  boy  and  girl.  Public  instruction  provides  a  few  manual 
training  high  schools,  and  in  addition  there  was  established  in  1898  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  an  evening  trade  school  which  serves  chiefly  as  a  shop- 
continuation  school,  as  its  general  policy  is  to  admit  only  those  with  some 
experience  in  the  trades.  Other  cities,  notably  Cambridge  and  Phila- 
delphia, have  followed  the  example  of  Springfield. 

The  private  trade  schools  for  boys  in  this  country  are  reviewed  by 
Professor  Richards.  He  divides  all  these  schools  into  two  classes,  the 
short-course  trade  school  and  the  long-course  trade  school.  The  problem 
for  all  these  schools  alike  is  the  economic  one  of  support.  Even  where  a 
tuition  fee  is  charged,  this  can  usually  only  partially  meet  the  expense 
of  the  school,  and  private  endowment  is  necessary.  To  the  student  as 
well  there  is  the  problem  of  maintenance  during  the  years  of  training. 

Six  of  the  most  important  short-course  trade  schools,  including  the 
first  one  established,  in  1881,  the  New  York  Trade  School,  are  described, — 
their  means  of  support,  requirements  for  admission,  and  the  results  ob- 
tained by  their  students.  To  quote  from  Professor  Richards:] 

"These  schools  do  not  attempt  to  turn  out  the  fully  equipped  journey- 
man, but  rather  to  lay  a  foundation  of  skill  and  knowledge  sufficient  for 
wage-earning,  leaving  further  skill,  speed,  and  judgment  to  be  acquired 
in  trade  practice. 

"The  great  demand  for  mechanics  in  the  building  trades,  at  the  present 
time,  undoubtedly  often  leads  to  a  too  rapid  advancement  of  the  graduate 
of  the  short-course  trade  school  and  to  his  too  early  recognition  as  a 
journeyman.  That  this  reacts  unfavorably  upon  the  school,  the  union, 
and  the  individual  can  hardly  be  questioned,  and  that  the  best  good  of 
the  employer,  the  labor  organization,  and  the  beginner  would  be  gained  by 
a  common  agreement  which  accorded  a  liberal  recognition  to  the  school 
training,  but  which  at  the  same  time  required  a  definite  and  considerable 
period  before  journeymen's  wages  are  obtained,  would  seem  to  be  one  of 
the  clear  lessons  of  the  present  situation." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  citizens  of  Milwaukee  have  voted  to 
incorporate  into  the  public  school  system  of  that  city  the  Milwaukee 
School  of  Trades,  opened  Jan.  2,  1906,  by  the  Merchants  and  Manu- 
facturers Association. 

"The  growth  and  promise  of  this  school  during  its  short  history  offer 
one  of  the  most  encouraging  chapters  in  the  trade  school  movement. 
During  the  past  year,  which  is  the  first  full  year  since  the  foundation  of 
the  school,  the  applications  for  admission  were  so  largely  in  excess  of 
the  capacity  of  the  equipment  that  the  executive  committee  in  charge 
applied  for  assistance  to  the  State  Legislature.  As  a  result  of  this  applica- 
tion a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  last  session  empowering  any  city  in  the 
State  to  establish  and  maintain  'a  school  or  schools  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  practical  instruction  in  the  useful  trades  to  persons  having  attained 
the. age  of  sixteen  years,  as  a  part  of  the  public  school  system  of  such 
city.'  The  bill  also  provides  for  the  levy  of  a  tax,  not  exceeding  one 


76  Teachers  College  Record 

half  of  one  mill,  on  the  total  assessed  valuation  of  the  city  for  the  sup- 
port of  such  schools — this  tax  to  be  known  as  the  trade  school  fund  and  to 
be  used  strictly  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  and  maintaining  trade 
schools." 

The  long-course  trade  school  by  offering  more  extended  courses  aims 
to  prepare  its  students  for  responsible  positions  in  the  highly  skilled 
trades.  With  this  object  in  view  training  in  purely  academic  branches  is 
included  in  the  course.  In  some  cases  these  institutions  are  highly  en- 
dowed, sufficiently  so  to  offer  full  support  to  the  boy  during  his  training. 
The  eight  most  important  schools  of  this  type  are  described.  The  follow- 
ing statistics  concerning  the  graduates  of  the  Hebrew  Technical  Institute 
give  an  example  of  the  results  of  schools  of  this  type. 

"In  1906  the  total  number  of  living  graduates  was  630,  from  575  of 
whom  reports  as  to  occupations  had  been  received.  Of  this  number 
seventy-five  per  cent,  were  following  various  lines  of  industrial  work 
directly  related  to  their  school  training.  The  average  weekly  earnings 
varied  from  $8.00  for  the  class  of  1906,  which  had  been  graduated  less  than 
a  year,  and  $12.00  for  the  class  of  1905,  to  $50.00  for  the  class  of 
1886." 

The  private  trade  schools  for  girls  in  the  country,  which  are  described 
by  Mrs.  Woolman,  are  few  as  compared  with  those  for  boys.  The 
two  pioneer  schools  are  the  Manhattan  Trade  School,  founded  November, 
1902,  of  which  Mrs.  Woolman  is  director,  and  the  Boston  Trade  School, 
which  followed  in  July,  1904.  In  order  to  meet  existing  problems  the 
courses  in  these  schools  were  planned  only  after  a  careful  study  of  the 
economic  conditions  in  the  two  cities.  The  following  quotation  gives  an 
idea  of  the  results  which  have  been  achieved  at  the  present  time. 

"Statistics  kept  at  each  school  show  that  the  students  trained  there 
have  a  great  advantage  over  the  shop-trained  girl  in  the  wages  received 
on  entrance  into  the  market,  the  kinds  of  places  taken,  and  the  constant 
rise  to  better  and  more  highly  paid  positions.  The  attitude  of  employers 
is  shown  in  the  demand  for  the  girls  trained  at  the  schools,  the  induce- 
ments offered  to  obtain  them,  and  the  fact  that  even  in  slack  season  when 
other  workers  are  dismissed  the  trade  school  children  are  held  over." 

These  results  are  encouraging  when  we  consider  that  all  private 
trade  schools  are  looked  upon  as  "an  experiment  station  in  which  the 
many  contending  educational,  industrial,  ethical  and  social  ideas  may 
be  tested.  The  solution  reached  by  such  institutions  will  enable  public 
instruction  to  more  readily  take  up  the  work  when  the  call  from  the 
people  becomes  too  insistent  to  refuse." 

Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Home  Economics. — The  department  of 
domestic  economy  of  Teachers  College  was  represented  on  the  program 
of  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Home  Economics  by  several  important 
papers.  This  Conference,  which  was  held  at  the  Lake  Placid  Club  in  the 
Adirondacks,  July  first  to  sixth,  is  a  national  gathering  of  persons  in- 
terested in  the  improvement  of  the  American  home,  whether  through 
education,  club-work,  legislation,  or  the  formation  of  public  opinion. 


Alumni  Department  77 

The  conference  was  organized  some  nine  years  ago  and  has  each  year  since 
brought  together  a  small  number  of  leaders  in  this  work. 

The  following  papers  were  read  by  members  of  Teachers'  College 
Faculty  and  staff: 

"  Report  of  the  Teachers  Section  of  the  Conference,  held  Dec.  3i-Jan. 
i,  at  Pratt  Institute,  including  subsequent  reports  of  its  two  committees,  " 
by  the  chairman  of  this  section,  Professor  Kinne; 

"Report  of  Committee  on  Trade  Schools,"  Professor  Woolman, 
chairman ; 

"The  Mineral  Matter  required  by  the  Human  Body,"  Professor 
Sherman ; 

"  Nomenclature  and  Terminology  in  Home  Economics,  "  a  preliminary 
report  from  a  Teachers  College  committee,  Professor  Snedden  chairman ; 

"Psychic  Factors  affecting  Home  Economics,"  Mr.  Andrews. 

It  will  be  a  matter  of  interest  to  teachers  of  domestic  science,  domestic 
art  and  other  branches  of  home  economics  to  know  that  the  Conference 
cordially  approved  the  report  of  the  first  meeting  of  the  "Teachers' 
Section,"  which  was  held  at  Pratt  Institute  last  Christmas  in  connection 
with  the  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  and  resolved  that  a  second  meeting  of  this  section  should  be 
held  at  Chicago  next  December,  again  in  connection  with  the  American 
Association.  All  persons  interested  in  the  teaching  of  domestic  subjects 
will  be  welcome  at  that  time. 

The  president  of  the  Conference  continues  to  be  Mrs.  E.  H.  Richards. 
Among  the  committee  chairmanships  for  next  year  are  the  following: 

Committee  on  Teachers  Section,  Professor  Kinne ; 

Committee  on  Trade  Schools,  Professor  Woolman; 

Committee  on  Household  Appliances,  Miss  Barrows; 

Committee  on  Training  Schools  and  Colleges,  Mr.  Andrews. 

The  next  Lake  Placid  Conference  will  be  held,  it  is  expected,  in 
September,  1908. 

A  Bibliography  of  Works  on  Industrial  Education: — A  selected  bib- 
liography on  industrial  education  has  been  issued  by  Professor  Charles 
R.  Richards,  secretary  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education,  and  copies  may  be  obtained  by  addressing  him, 
care  of  Teachers  College,  New  York.  The  material  selected  relates  mainly 
to  the  problem  in  the  United  States,  but  a  number  of  titles  of  special 
value  upon  the  organization  of  industrial  education  in  European  countries 
are  included.  The  bibliography  includes  not  only  books  and  public 
reports,  but  articles,  addresses,  and  proceedings  of  societies.  The  editor 
solicits  titles  that  may  add  to  the  value  of  a  subsequent  edition.  The 
division  of  the  general  subject  index  will  be  of  interest  to  those  whose 
interests  lie  in  this  field.  It  includes:  Apprenticeship  system,  in- 
dustrial education  in  Europe  of  girls,  public  schools  in  relation  to  in- 
dustrial education,  social  aspects,  technical  education  for  industrial 
workers,  trade  schools  (arguments  for,  organization,  and  statistics),  and 
studies  of  the  general  problem. 


78 


Teachers  College  Record 


Fall  Appointments  of  Teachers  College  Students. — Over  one  hundred 
new  appointments  of  Teachers  College  students  are  reported  for  this 
fall,  the  great  majority  of  which  have  been  arranged  by  the  Appoint- 
ment Committee  of  .the  College.  Seventeen  of  these  appointments  are 
in  universities  and  colleges,  and  include  one  acting  dean,  two  professors 
of  education,  one  professor  of  sociology,  and  an  associate  professor  of 
history.  Twenty-five  are  in  high  or  normal  schools,  and  represent  work 
in  the  subjects  of  history,  language,  science,  and  education.  Nineteen 
positions  in  domestic  science  and  art  alone  have  been  filled,  including 
one  professor  and  two  supervisors.  Of  the  other  appointments,  nine  are 
in  manual  training,  thirteen  in  elementary  work,  and  four  in  kinder- 
garten, including  in  each  case  supervisors  and  principals. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  partial  list  given  below  includes  also 
the  president  of  a  state  normal  school,  two  superintendents  of  schools, 
the  educational  manager  of  the  publishing  house  of  Houghton,  Mifnin  & 
Co.,  and  the  Commissioner  of  Education  in  Porto  Rico. 


Adams,  E.  Louise,  Dip.,  Kinder- 
garten Supervision.  Primary 
Critic,  Public  School,  DeKalb, 
111. 

Anthony,  Hettie  M.,  A.M.  '06. 
Domestic  Science,  Throop  Poly- 
technic Institute,  Pasadena,Calif. 

Bassett,  Harry  Kendall.  English, 
Instructor,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, Madison,  Wis. 

Bennett,  Chas.  J.  C.,  Ph.D.  '05. 
President,  State  Normal  School, 
Fairmont,  W.  Va. 

Bigelow,  Luna  E.,  B.S.  '07.  Ele- 
mentary Critic,  State  Normal 
School,  New  Paltz,  N.  Y. 

Binzel,  Cora  E.,  student  'o5-'o6. 
Domestic  Science,  Public  School, 
La  Crosse,  Wis. 

Bower,  Geneva,  B.S.  '07.  Head 
Kindergarten  Dept.,  Ep  worth 
University,  Oklahoma,  Okla. 

Brison,  Mary  T.,  B.S.  '05.  Fine 
Arts,  Ohio  University,  Athens. 
Ohio. 

Calef,  Evelyn  L.,  Dip.,  Domestic 
Art,  '06.  Supervisor  Domestic 
Art,  Public  Schools,  Superior, 
Wis. 

Caldwell,  Rush  M.,  A.M.  '07.  Head 
Elementary  School,  Newman 


Manual  Training  School,  New 
Orleans,  La. 

Clark,  Myra  B.,  A.M.  '05.  Domestic 
Science,  James  Milliken  Uni- 
versity, Decatur,  111. 

Crocker,  Nellie  J.,  B.S.  '07.  Ger- 
man, Friends'  Central  School, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Curtis,  Mrs.  Maud  L.B.,  student  'oo- 
'01,  Summer  '07.  Primary  Super- 
visor, Public  Schools,  Utica,  N.Y. 

Dexter,  Edwin  Grant,  Ph.D.  '99. 
Commissioner  of  Education, 
Porto  Rico. 

Hastings,  Montana,  Dip.,  Elemen- 
tary Education,  '07.  Education, 
Head  of  Dept.,  State  Normal 
School,  Fairmont,  W.  Va. 

Highsmith,  J.  Henry,  A.M.  '05. 
Professor  of  Education,  Wake 
Forest  College,  Wake  Forest,  N.C. 

Hoyt,  Franklin  S.,  A.M.  '05.  Edu- 
cational Dept.  Houghton,  Mif- 
flin  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Hubbell,  Geo.  A.,  Ph.D.,  '02.  Chair 
of  Sociology,  Kentucky  Uni- 
versity, Lexington,  Ky. 

Hughes,  Percy,  Ph.D.  '04.  Pro- 
fessor Philosophy,  Psychology, 
Education,  Lehigh  University, 
So.  Bethlehem,  Pa. 


Alumni  Department 


79 


Kellogg,  Florence,  B.S.  '07.  Critic, 
i  stand  2nd  grades,  Normal  and 
Industrial  College,  Milledgeville, 
Ga. 

Kent,  Ernest  B.,  Ph.D.  '03.  Man- 
ual Training  Supervisor,  Public 
School,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Kinkaid,  Eula  M.,  B.S.  '06.  Pri- 
mary Critic,  State  Normal  School, 
University  of  Utah,  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah. 

Lanman,  Faith  R.,  B.S.  '07.  Do- 
mestic Science  Supervisor,  Public 
School,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

MacLear,  Anne  B.,  B.S.  '02.  His- 
tory, Normal  College,  New  York 
City. 

McRae,  Frances  E.,  B.S.  '02. 
Physics,  Tutor  in  High  School 
Dept.,  Normal  College,  New 
York  City. 

Meriam,  Junius  L.,  Ph.D.  '05. 
Acting  Dean,  Teachers  College, 
University  of  Missouri,  Colum- 
bia, Mo. 

Palmer,  Herriott  C.,  A.M.  '06. 
History,  High  School,  Marion, 
Ind. 

Pett,  Mrs.  Clara  G.,  Dip.,  Domestic 
Science,  '07.  Domestic  Science, 
Illinois  Wesleyan  University, 
Bloomington,  111. 

Pierson,  Clementine  M.,  B.S.  '06. 
Domestic  Science  and  Domestic 


Art,  Public  School,  Cincinnati,  O. 

Fletcher,  Nuba  M.,  Ph.D.  '06. 
Associate  Professor  of  History, 
Alfred  University,  Alfred,  N.  Y. 

Proudfoot,  Mary  A.,  student  '06- 
'07.  Principal,  and  Supervisor 
of  Kindergartens,  Cohoes  Train- 
ing School,  Cohoes,  N.  Y. 

Prouty,  Iris  G.,  student  'o5-'o6. 
Manual  Training,  State  Normal 
School,  Millersville,  Pa. 

Robertson,  Kate  L.,  B.S.  '07. 
Domestic  Science,  Public  Schools, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Robinson,  Mabel  L.,  A.M.  '07. 
Professor  of  Zoology,  American 
School  for  Girls,  Constantinople, 
Turkey. 

Rogers,  Lester  B.,  A.M.  '07.  Edu- 
cation, Tri-State  College,  An- 
gola, Ind. 

Simmons,  Mary  P.,  B.S.  '07. 
Domestic  Science,  Public  School, 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Thomson,  John,  Bach.  Dip.  Manual 
Training  '02.  Manual  Training, 
Public  School,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Waugh,  Louise,  B.S.  '06.  State 
College,  State  College,  Pa.  Do- 
mestic Science. 

Wiggin,  Ralph  L.,  A.M.  '07.  Supt. 
of  Schools,  Falmouth,  Mass. 

Wilcox,  Felix  Eugene,  B.S.  '07. 
Supt.  of  Schools,  Hudson,  Mich. 


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MANUAL       TRAINING       IN 
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ENGLISH  SYNONYMS 

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No.  3     The    Rise    of    Local    School    Supervision  in  Massachusetts.       HENRY 

SUZZALLO,  Ph.D.     154  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.50,  net. 
No.  4     The  Educational  Theories  of  Herbart  and  Froebel.     JOHN  ANGUS  MAC- 

VANNEL,  Ph.D.     114  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.00,  net. 

Reprinted  from  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD,  September,  1905. 
No.  5     City  School  Expenditures.      GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYBR,    Ph.D.      103 

pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.00,  net. 

Reprinted  from  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD,  May,  1905. 
No.  6     Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Public  Education  in  American  Cities.     EDWARD 

C.  ELLIOTT,  Ph.D.     101  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.00. 

Reprinted  from  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD,  November,  1905. 
No.  7      The  Public  Primary  School  System  of  France,  with  special  reference  to 

the  Training  of  Teachers.     FREDERICK  ERNEST  FARRINGTON,   Ph.D.     30* 

pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $2.50,  net. 
No.  8      A   History  of   Sixteenth  Century  Arithmetic.     LAMBERT   L.  JACKSON, 

Ph.D.     261  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $2.00,  net. 
No.  9     A  Vocabulary  of  High  School  Latin.      GONZALEZ  LODGE.      210  Pages. 

Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.50. 
No.  10    The  College  Curriculum  in  the  United  States.     Louis  FRANKLIN  SNOW 

Ph.D.     In  preparation. 
No.    ii      The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.      A   study  in    Medieval   Culture.      PAUL 

ABELSON,  Ph.D.     150  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.50,^. 
No.  12      Administration  and  Educational  Work  of  American   Juvenile  Reform 

Schools.  DAVID  S.  SNEDDEN,  Ph.D.  204  pages.  Price,  cloth  bound,  $2.00, 

net. 
No.  13     The  Concept  of  Equality  in  the  Writings  of  Rousseau,  Bentham,  and 

Kant.     J.  A.  T.  WILLIAMS.     85  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  750.,  net. 
No.  14     Herbart  and  Froebel:  An  Attempt  at  Synthesis.     RICHARD  PERCIVAL 

COLE.     116  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.00,  net. 
No.  15     Public  Education  in  Upper  Canada  (Ontario).     1791-1841.     HERBERT 

T.  J.  GOLEM  AN.     120  pages.     Price,  cloth  bound,  $1.00,  net. 
No.  1 6     The  Learning  Process   or  Educational  Theory  Implied  in  Theory  of 

Knowledge.     JESSE  H.  COURSAULT. 


GJLNOVAL    CATALOGUE 

[OFFICERS  AND  ALUMNI 

OF 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

(Including  Teachers  College    1901-1906) 
^FOURTEENTH  EDITION 

1754-1906 

The  volume  gives  the  addresses  of  all  living  graduates  so  far  as  it 
has  been  possible  to  ascertain  them.  The  Locality  Index,  comprising 
the  names  of  all  living  graduates  with  addresses,  arranged  by  States, 
cities,  and  towns,  which  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  the  1894  edition, 
has  been  revised  and  continued  to  date  and  contains  12,983  names. 

Copies  bound  in  cloth  and  stamped  in  gilt  will  be  forwarded  on 
receipt  of  $2.00.  Add  25  cents  for  expressage  of  out-of-town  orders. 
Applications,  accompanied  by  draft  on  New  York,  postal  or  express 
order,  or  check,  may  be  addressed  to  Rudolf  Tombo,  Jr.,  Secretary  of 
the  Committee  on  the  General  Catalogue,  at  Columbia  University. 


THE  JOURNAL 
OF  GEOGRAPHY 


An  Illustrated  Magazine  Devoted  to  the  Interests  of  Teachers 
of  Geography  in  Elementary,  Secondary,  and  in  Normal  Schools 

Edited  by  RICHARD  ELWOOD  DODGE 

Professor  of  Geography,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City 

THE  JOURNAL  stands  for  progress  in  geography  teaching,  and  its  field  includes  all  grades  of 
work.  Teachers,  from  the  Elementary  School  to  the  University,  find  THE  JOURNAL  almost  in- 
dispensable, if  they  would  keep  in  touch  with  that  which  is  best  in  geography  teaching. 

Every  school  library  in  the  country  should  contain  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  for  it  is  a 
reference  volume  of  continued  and  increasing  usefulness,  and  many  of  the  articles  may  be  used 
for  supplementary  work.  Many  of  the  subjects  treated  in  THE  JOURNAL  are  not  available  in 
any  other  form. 

$1.00  a  year  (10  numbers).  Subscriptions  may  begin  with  any  number.  Send  for  a 
sample  copy. 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Published  by 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


Columbia  {University  Extension  Syllabi 

Syllabi  of  various  courses  of  instruction  have  been  issued  or  are  in  the 
press.  These  syllabi  contain  outlines  of  study,  bibliographies,  and  refer- 
ences, and  furnish  systematic  guides  for  the  private  student,  reading 
circles,  and  classes  of  instruction.  They  are  published  in  two  series: 
SERIES  A  contains  syllabi  of  College  courses  or  integral  parts  of  College 
courses;  SERIES  B  contains  syllabi  of  short  courses  of  public  lectures 
llyensn  of  six  lectures. 

SERIES  A 

A,  No. i       Shakspere—By  Professor  F.  H.  SYKES 

A,  No.  2       Old  Testament  Literature — By  Dr.  R.  M.  HODGB 

A,  No.  3       American  Literature  —  General  Survey — By  Mr.  CLYDE  FURST, 

M.A. 
A,  No.  4       Architecture — Renaissance  and  Modern — By  Professor  A.  D. 

F.  HAMLIN 

A,  No. 5       English  Language  and  Grammar — By  Dr.  G.  P.  KRAPP 
A.  No.  6       History  of  English  Literature — Nineteenth  Century — By  Pro- 
fessor F.  H.  SYKES 
A.  No.  7       American  Literature — Representative  Authors — By  Mr.  CLYDE 

FURST,  M.A. 
A,  No.  8       Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  English  in  the  Elementary 

Schools— By  Professor  F.  T.  BAKER 

A,  No.  9       Development  of  Instrumental  Music — By  Mr.  THOMAS  WHIT- 
NEY SURETTE 

A,  No.  10     Architecture — Ancient,  Medi&val,  and  Oriental — By  Professor 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN 
A,  No.  ii     English    Composition — By     Professor     HERBERT    VAUGHAN 

ABBOTT 
A,  No.  12     The   Philosophy   of  Education — By   Professor  JOHN   ANGUS 

MACVANNEL.     (Double  number,  20  cents.) 

A,  No.  13  Study  of  Music  in  Schools — By  Professor  C.  H.  FARNSWORTH 
A,  No.  14  History  of  England — to  Tudor  Age — By  Dr.  C.  A.  BEARD 
A,  No.  15  History  of  England — from  James  I.  to  the  Present — By  Dr.  C. 

A.  BEARD 

A,  No.  16.     General  Geography — By  Professor  R.  E.  DODGE 
A,  No.  17.     History  and  Principles  of  Education — By   Professor   PAUL 

MONROE 

A,  No.  18.     School  Administration — By  Professor  S.  T.  DUTTON 
A,  No.  19.     Modern  European  History — By  Dr.  C.  A.  BEARD 
A.  No.  20.     Theory  and    Practice  of   Teaching   in   Elementary   Schools — 
By  Dr.  G.  D.  STRAYER 

SERIES  B 

B,  No.  i       The  Solar  System — By  Dr.  S.  A.  MITCHELL 

B,  No.  2       The  French  Revolution — By  Professor  J.  T.  SHOTWELL 

B,  No.  3       The  Vegetation  of  the  Earth — By  Professor  F.  E.  LLOYD 

B,  No.  4       Climate  and  Mankind — By  Professor  R.  E.  DODGE 

B,  Wo.  5       Metallurgy — By  Professor  BRADLEY  STOUGHTON,  and  Drs.  M. 

N.  BOLLES  and  WM.  CAMPBELL 

B,  No.  6       The  Greatest  American  Writers — By  Mr.  CLYDE  FURST,  M.A. 
B,  No.  7       The  Cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages — By  Professor  A.  D.  F. 

HAMLIN 

B,  No.  8       Fundamental  Problems  of  Human  Nature — By  Professor  E.  L. 
THORNDIKE 

t  B,  No.  9       Shakspere—By  Professor  F.  H.  SYKES 

B,  No.  10     Representative  German  Authors — By  Professor  R.  TOMBO,  Jr. 
B,  No.  ii     Organic    Evolution — By    Professor    H.    E.    CRAMPTON 
B,  No.  12     Spanish  America — By  Professor  W.  R.  SHEPHERD 

fB,  No.  13     Representative   German   Dramas — By    Dr.    W.    BRAUN 
B,  No.  14     The  Expansion  of  the  United  States — By  Dr.  C.  A.  BEARD 

fB,  No.  15     The    Life   of    Primitive   Peoples — By  Dr.  CLARK  WISSLER 
B,  No.  16    Industrialism  and  Democracy — By  Dr.  C.  A.  BEARD 
B,  No.  17     Great  Masters  of  Music — By  Mr.  D.  G.  MASON 
B,  No.  1 8     The  Metallurgy  of   Iron   and  Steel — By  Professor  BRADLEY 

STOUGHTON 
B,  No.  19.     The  History  of  American  Poetry — By  Professor  C.  H.  PAOB 

(flN  PREPARATION.) 

Price  10  cents  per  copy,  except  where  otherwise  stated.  Address:  Ex- 
tension Teaching,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 


Columbia  Tflniversit? 
in  tbe  (tit?  -of  mew 


Columbia  University  includes  both  a  college  and  a  university  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  words.  The  college  is  Columbia  College,  founded  in  1754  as  King's  College. 
The  University  consists  of  the  Faculties  of  Law,  Medicine,  Philosophy,  Political  Science, 
Pure  Science,  and  Applied  Science. 

The  point  of  contact  between  the  college  and  the  university  is  the  senior  year 
of  the  college,  during  which  year  students  in  the  college  pursue  their  studies,  with 
the  consent  of  the  college  faculty,  under  one  or  more  of  the  faculties  of  the  university. 

Barnard  College,  a  college  for  women,  is  financially  a  separate  corporation;  but, 
educationally,  is  a  part  of  the  system  of  Columbia  University. 

Teachers  College,  a  professional  school  for  teachers,  is  also,  financially,  a  sep- 
arate corporation  ;  and  also,  educationally,  a  part  of  the  system  of  Columbia  University. 

Each  college  and  school  is  under  the  charge  of  its  own  faculty,  except  that  the 
Schools  of  Mines,  Chemistry,  Engineering,  and  Architecture  are  all  under  the  charge 
of  the  Faculty  of  Applied  Science. 

For  the  care  and  advancement  of  the  general  interests  of  the  university  educa- 
tional system,  as  a  whole,  a  Council  has  been  established,  which  is  representative  of 
all  the  corporations  concerned. 


I.    THE  COLLEGES. 

Columbia  College  offers  for  men  a  course 
of  four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  Candidates  for  admission 
to  the- college  must  be  at  least  fifteen  years 
of  age,  and  pass  an  examination  on  pre- 
scribed subjects,  the  particulars  concerning 
which  may  be  found  in  the  annual  Circular 
of  Information. 

Barnard  College,  founded  in  1889,  offers 
for  women  a  course  of  four  years,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  Candi- 
dates for  admission  to  the  college  must  be 
at  least  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  pass  an 
examination  on  prescribed  subjects,  the 
particulars  concerning  which  may  be  found 
in  the  annual  Circular  of  Information. 

II.    THE  UNIVERSITY. 

In  a  technical  sense,  the  Faculties  of  Law, 
Medicine,  Philosophy,  Political  Science, 
Pure  Science,  and  Applied  Science,  taken 
together  constitute  the  university.  These 
faculties  offer  advanced  courses  of  study 
and  investigation,  respectively,  in  (a)  pri- 
vate or  municipal  law,  (b)  medicine,  (c) 
philosophy,  philology,  and  letters,  (d)  his- 
tory, economics,  and  public  law,  (e)  mathe- 
matics and  natural  science,  and  (f)  applied 
science.  Courses  of  study  under  all  of 
these  faculties  are  open  to  members  of  the 
senior  class  in  Columbia  College.  Certain 
courses  under  the  non-professional  faculties 
are  open  to  women  who  have  taken  the  first 
degree.  These  courses  lead,  through  the 
Bachelor's  degree,  to  the  university  degrees 
of  Master  of  Arts  and  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
The  degree  of  Master  of  Laws  is  also  con- 
ferred for  advanced  work  in  law  done  under 
the  Faculties  of  Law  and  Political  Science 
together. 

III.    THE  PROFESSIONAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  Faculties  of  Law,  Medicine,  and  Ap- 
plied Science  conduct  respectively  the  pro- 
fessional schools  of  Law,  Medicine,  and 
Mines,  Chemistry,  Engineering,  and  Archi- 


tecture, to  which  students  are  admitted  as 
candidates  for  professional  degrees  on  terms 
prescribed  by  the  faculties  concerned.  The 
faculty  of  Teachers  College  conducts  profes- 
sional courses  for  teachers,  that  lead  to  a 
diploma  of  the  university. 

1.  THE    SCHOOL    OF    LAW,    established    in 
1858,  offers  a  course  of  three  years,  in  the 
principles  and  practice  of  private  and  public 
law,   leading  to   the   degree  of   Bachelor   of 
Laws. 

2.  THE     COLLEGE     OF     PHYSICIANS     AND 
SURGEONS,  founded  in  1807,  offers  a  course 
of  four  years,  in  the  principles  and  practice 
of  medicine  and  surgery,  leading  to  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

3.  THE  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  established  in 
1864,  offers  courses  of  study,  each  of  four 
years,    leading   to   a   professional    degree   in 
mining  engineering  and  in  metallurgy. 

4.  THE    SCHOOLS    OF    CHEMISTRY,    ENGI- 
NEERING, AND   ARCHITECTURE,   set   off   from 
the  School  of  Mines  in  1896,  offer  respect- 
ively, courses  of  study,  each  of  four  years, 
leading   to   an    appropriate   professional    de- 
gree, in  analytical  and  applied  chemistry ;  in 
civil,  sanitary,  electrical,  and  mechanical  en- 
gineering ;  and  in  architecture. 

5.  TEACHERS   COLLEGE,    founded   in    1888 
and  chartered  in   1889,  was  included  in  the 
university  in   1898.     It  offers  the  following 
courses  of  study :   (a)  graduate  courses  lead- 
ing to  the   Master's  and   Doctor's  diplomas 
in  the  several  departments  of  the  College ; 
(b)  professional  courses,  each  of  two  years, 
leading  to  the  Bachelor's  diploma  for  Sec- 
ondary    Teaching,      Elementary     Teaching, 
Kindergarten,      Domestic      Art,      Domestic 
Science,     Fine    Arts,     Music,    and    Manual 
Training ;    (c)    a    collegiate    course    of    two 
years,    which,    if    followed    by    a    two-year 
professional  course,   leads  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Science.     Certain  of  its  courses 
may    be    taken,    without    extra    charge,    by 
students  of  the  university  in  partial   fulfil- 
ment  of  the   requirements    for   the   degrees 
of   Bachelor   of  Arts,    Master   of  Arts,    and 
Doctor   of   Philosophy. 

NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,  LL.D., 

President. 


fteacbers  College 
Columbia 


Teachers  College  is  the  professional  school  of  Columbia  University  for  the  study 
of  education  and  the  training  of  teachers.  The  purpose  of  the  College  is  to  afford 
opportunity,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  both  sexes 
for  elementary,  secondary,  and  normal  schools,  of  specialists  in  various  branches  of 
school  work,  and  of  principals,  supervisors,  and  superintendents  of  schools. 

The  College  offers  56  courses  in  Education,  including  6  courses  on  the  History 
and  Principles  of  Education,  4  courses  on  Educational  Administration,  7  courses  on 

Educational  Psychology,  and  25  courses  on  the  theory  and  practice 
Courses  of  teaching  Biology,  Domestic  Art,  Domestic  Science,  English,  Fine 

of  Arts,  French,  Geography,  German,  Greek,  History,  Kindergarten, 

Instruction  Latin,  Manual  Training,  Mathematics,  Music,  Physical  Science  and 

Physical  Education.  Other  courses  of  instruction  supplementary 
to  those  above  are  as  follows :  Biology,  6  courses ;  Domestic  Art,  5  courses ;  Domestic 
Science,  10  courses;  English,  6  courses;  Fine  Arts,  14  courses;  French,  3  courses; 
German,  2  courses ;  Geography,  4  courses ;  History,  4  courses ;  Kindergarten,  4  courses ; 
Manual  Training,  9  courses;  Mathematics,  3  courses;  Music,  5  courses;  Physical 
Science,  4  courses,  and  Physical  Education,  6  courses.  Qualified  students  of  Teachers 
College  may  also  pursue  University  courses  in  History,  Language  and  Literature, 
Natural  Science,  Mathematics,  Philosophy,  Psychology,  Ethics,  Anthropology,  Music, 

Economics  and  Social  Science.  Teachers  College  maintains  two 
Teachers  schools  of  observation  and  practice:  one,  the  Horace  Mann  School, 

College  the  other  known  as  the  Speyer  School.  The  Horace  Mann  School 

Schools  comprises  three  departments  —  a  kindergarten  for  children  of  three 

to  six  years  of  age,  an  elementary  school  of  seven  grades,  and  a 
high  school  of  five  grades.  The  Speyer  School  consists  of  a  kindergarten,  elementary 
school,  and  special  classes  in  sewing,  cooking  and  manual  training. 

Courses  of  Study  are  as  follows:  (i)  A  two-year  Collegiate 
Courses  Course  which  if  followed  by  a  two-year  professional  course  leads 

of  to  the  degree  of  B.S. ;  (2)  Two-year  professional  courses  lead- 

Study  ing  to  the  Bachelor's  diploma  in  (a)  Secondary  Teaching,  (b) 

Elementary  Teaching,  (c)  Kindergarten,  (d)  Domestic  Art,  (e) 
Domestic  Science,  (f)  Fine  Arts,  (g)  Music,  (h)  Manual  Training,  and  (k)  Physical 
Education;  (3)  Graduate  courses  of  one  and  two  years,  respectively,  leading  to  the 
Master's  and  Doctor's  diplomas  in  the  several  departments  of  the  College.  Student! 
holding  the  degree  of  B.S.  or  A.B.  may  become  candidates  for  A.M.  and  Ph.D. 

The  requirements  for  admission  are  as  follows:  (i)  To  the  Col- 
Admission  legiate  Course  —  completion  of  a  high-school  course;  (2)  to  the 
Require-  two-year  courses  —  (a,  b,  c,  and  k  above)  completion  of  the  Collegiate 
ments  Course  or  its  equivalent  in  an  approved  college  or  graduation  from 

an  approved  normal  school;  (d,  e,  f,  g,  h)  same  as  for  (a)  and  (&) 
or  two  years  of  technical  training  or  experience  in  teaching;  (3)  to  the  graduate  courset 
—  college  graduation  or  its  equivalent. 

Tuition  in  graduate  courses  and  courses  leading  to  a  degree,  $150; 

in  other  courses,  $100.    The  faculty  annually  awards  5  Fellowships 

of  $650  each,  i  Scholarship  of  $400,  12  Scholarships  of  $150  each, 
icholarships  and  4  Scholarships  of  $75  each 

For  circulars  and  information,  address  the  Secretary. 

JAMES  E.  RUSSELL,  LL.D.,  Dean. 


TeacHers  College  Record 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I—  1900 

No,  i  The  History  and  Function  of  Teachers  College.  —  Papers  by  DEAN  Rus- 

January  SELL  and  EX-PRESIDENT  HERVEY.     (Out  of  Print.; 

No.  2,  March       Nature  Study. 

No.  3,  May  English.     (Out  of  print.) 

No.  4  Syllabi  of  Education  Courses.  —  PRESIDENT  BUTLER,  DEAN    RUSSELL 

September  and  PROFESSORS  MONROE  and  DUTTON. 

No.  5  November  Hand  Work.     (Out  of  print.) 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  II—  1901 

No.i  Biology  in  the  Horace  Mann  High  School.  —  PROFESSORS  LLOYD   and 

January  BIGELOW. 

No.  2  Geography  in  the  Horace  Mann  School.  —  PROFESSOR   DODGE  and  Miss 

March  KIRCHWEY. 

No.  3  Child  Study.  —  Sources  of  Material  and  Syllabi  of  College  Courses.  —  PRO- 

May  FESSOR  THORNDIKE. 

No.  4  Syllabi  of  Courses  in  Elementary  and  Applied  Psychology.  —  PROFESSOR 

September  THORNDIKE. 

No.  5  November  Manual  Training.     (Out  of  print.) 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  III—  1902 

No.  i  Horace  Mann   School:   Dedication   Number.  —  Papers   by   PRESIDENT 

January  OILMAN,     PROFESSOR     DUTTON    and    others,    on     Present-Day 

Problems  in  Education.     (Out  of  print.) 

No.  2  Chemistry   and   Physics   in    the    Horace   Mann    High   School.  —  PRO- 

March  FESSOR  WOODHULL.     (Out  of  Print.) 

Nos.  3  and  4        Helps  for  the  Teaching  of  Ccesar.  —  PROFESSOR  LODGE  and  MESSRS. 
May,  September  HUBBELL  and  LITTLE. 

No.  5  The  Speyer  School.     Part  I.:  Its  History  and  Purpose.  —  DEAN  RUSSELL, 

November  PROFESSOR  McMuRRY  and  MR.  BURKS. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  IV—  1903 

No.  i  The  Speyer  School.     Part  II  :  Its  Curriculum  and  its  Relation  to  Teachers 

January  College.  —  PROFESSOR  McMuRRY  and  MR.  BURKS. 

No.  2  Mathematics    in    the    Elementary    School.  —  PROFESSORS    SMITH    and 

March  McMuRRY.     (Out  of  print.) 

No.  3  New   Methods   of    Teaching  Modern   Languages.  —  DOCTOR   LEOPOLD 

May  BAHLSEN. 

No.  4  September  University  Extension.  —  PROFESSOR  SYKES. 

No.  5  The  Philosophy  and  Psychology  of  the  Kindergarten.  —  DEAN  RUSSELL 

November  and  PROFESSORS  THORNDIKE  and 


^ 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  V—  1904 

No.  i  January     Music  in  the  Schools.  —  PROFESSOR  FARNSWORTH  and  Miss  HOFER. 
No.  2  The  Curriculum  of  the  Elementary  School.  —  PROFESSORS  DUTTON,  PEAR- 

March  SON,  RICHARDS,  WOOD  and  WOODHULL. 

No.  3  Experimental  Work  in  Elementary  Schools.  —  PROFESSOR  McMuRRY  and 

May  others. 

No.  4  Syllabi  of  Education  and  English  Courses.  —  PROFESSORS  MACVANNEL, 

September  ABBOTT,  BAKER  and  SYKES.     (Out  of  Print)  '** 

No.  5  Kindergarten  Education.  —  PROFESSOR  RUN  Y  AN,    Miss  O'GRADY  and 

November  Miss  MILLS. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VI—  1905 

No.  i  January     Educational  Psychology.  —  PROFESSORS  ELLIS  and  THORNDIKE. 
No.  2  School  Hygiene.  —  PROFESSORS  WOOD  and  KINNE,  and  DOCTORS  JACOBI, 

March  WEEKS  and  KERLEY. 

No.  3  May  City  School  Expenditures.  —  DR.  STRAYER.     (Out  of  Print.)      Reissued 

as  No.  5  Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education.price  $1.00. 

No.  4  The    Educational     Theories    of    Herbart    and    Froebel.  —  PROFESSOR 

September  MACVANNEL.     (Out  of  print.)     Reissued  as  No.  4  Teachers  Col- 

lege Contributions  to  Education,  price  $1.00. 

No.  5  Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Public  Education  in  American  Cities.  —  PROFES- 

November  SOR  ELLIOTT.     (Out  of  Print.)     Reissued  as  No.  6  Teachers  Col- 

lege Contributions  to  Education,  price  $1.00,  cloth  bound. 


XeacKers  College  Record— Continued 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VII— 1906 

No.  i  January  Elementary  School  Curriculum  First  Grade.  (Out  of  print.)  Reissued. 
Price  500. 

No.  a  March  Secondary  School  Curriculum.  Part  One.  Language,  History,  Mathe- 
matics. 

No.  3  May  Secondary  School  Curriculum.     Part  Two.     Science  and  Art. 

No.  4  September  Elementary  School  Curriculum.  Second  and  Third  Grades.  (Out  of 
Print.)  Reissued.  Price  500. 

No.  5  November  Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  English.    Grammar  i 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VHI— 1907 
No.  i  January     Elementary  School  Curriculum-  Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades.  (Out  of  Print.) 

Reissued.    Price  5oc. 

No.  2  March       Experimental  Studies  in  Education. 

No.  3  May  Elementary  School  Curriculum.      Sixth  Grade.      (Out  of  print.)      Re- 

issued.    Price  5oc. 

No.  4  September  Elementary  School  Curriculum.     Seventh  Grade.      (Out  of  print.)     Re- 
issued.    Price  5oc. 
No.  5  November  The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  Wuerttemberg. 

Subscription  price,  $1.00  per  annum;  single  numbers,  30  cents;  postage  pre- 
paid. On  5  or  more  copies  a  discount  of  20%  is  granted.  Address  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 
RECORD,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

The  Constructive  Interests'of  Children.     ERNEST  B.  KENT.     78  pages.     Price  SQC. 
Formal  Discipline.     C.  J.  C.  BENNETT.     76  pages.     Price  SQC. 

EDUCATIONAL  REPRINTS 

Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education.     Price 

5oc. 
Idiocy  and  its  Treatment   by   the  Physiological  Method.     DR.  SEGUIN.     202   pages. 

Price  $2.00. 


Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Philosophy,  Psychology  and  Education 

Sent  unbound,  postpaid  on  receipt  of  price  by  Teachers  College    • 

VOLUME  I. 

1.  Friedrich  Heinrich  Jacobi.     NORMAN  WILDE,  Ph.D.     60  cents,  net. 

2.  Kant's  Inaugural  Dissertation  of  1770.     W.  J.  ECKOFF,  Ph.D.     90  cents,  net. 

3.  The  Ethical  System  of  James  Martineau.     JOSEPH  H.  HERTZ,  Ph.D.     60  cents,  net. 

4.  Friedrich  Eduard  Beneke.     FRANCIS  BURKE  BRANDT,  Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

VOLUME  II. 

1.  Hegel  as  Educator     FREDERIC  LUDLOW  LUQUEER,  Ph.D.     $1.00.  net. 

2.  Hegel's  Doctrine  of  the  Will.     JOHN  ANGUS  MACVANNEL,  Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

3.  The  Basis  of  Early  Christian  Theism.     LAWRENCE  T.  COLE,  Ph.D.     50  cents,  net. 

4.  Early  American  Philosophers.     ADAM  LEROY  JONES,  Ph.D.     75  cents,  net. 

VOLUME  III. 

1.  The  Formal  and  Material  Elements  of  Kant's  Ethics.     WILLIAM  MORROW  WASHINGTON, 

Ph.D.     60  cents,  net. 

2.  A  Syllabus  of  Psychology.     JAMES  H.  HYSLOP,  Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

3-4.  A  Syllabus  of  an  Introduction  to  Philosophy.     WALTER  T.  MARVIN,  Ph.D.     $1.25,  net 

VOLUME  IV. 

1.  On  Sensations  from  Pressure  and  Impact.      HAROLD  GRIFFING,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

2.  Mental  Imagery.     WILFRID  LAY,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

3.  Animal  Intelligence.     EDWARD  L.  THORNDIKE,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

4.  The  Emotion  of  Joy.     GEORGE  V.  N.  DEARBORN,  Ph.D.     $i.ia,  net. 

VOLUME  V. 

1.  Conduct  and  the  Weather.     EDWIN  G.  DEXTER,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

2.  On  After  Images.     SHEPHERD  I.  FRANZ,  Ph.D.     Si.ia,  net. 

3.  Inhibition.     BURTIS  R.  BREESE,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

4.  On  the  Accuracy  of  Movement.     ROBERT  S.  WOODWORTH,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

VOLUME  VI. 

1-4.  Educational  Legislation  and  Administration  in  the  Colonies.     ELSIE  WORTHINGTON 
CLEWS,  Ph.D.     $2.00,  net. 

VOLUME  VII. 

1.  The  Education  of  the  Pueblo  Child.     FRANK  C.  SPENCER,  Ph.D.     75  cents,  net. 

2.  The  Economic  Aspect  of  Teachers'  Salaries.     CHAS.  BARTLETT  DYKE,  A.M.     $1.00  net. 

3.  Education  in  India.     WILLIAM  I.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Ph.D.     75  cents,  net. 

4.  Horace  Mann  in  Ohio.     GEORGE  ALLEN  HUBBELL,  A.M.     50  cents,  net. 

VOLUME  VIII. 

1.  Imitation  in  Education.    JASPER  NEWTON  DEAHL,  A.M.   (Out  of  print.) 

2.  Historical  Development  of  School  Reading  Books  and  of  Method  in  Teaching  Reading 

RUDOLPH  REX  REEDER,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

3-4.  Notes  on  Child  Study.     EDWARD  LEE  THORNDIKE,  Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

VOLUME  IX. 

1.  The  Mental  Life  of  the  Monkeys.     EDWARD  LEE  THORNDIKE,  Ph.D.     (Out  of  print.) 

2.  The  Correlation  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.    CLARK  WISSLER,  Ph.D.    (Out  of  print.) 

3.  The  Practice  Curve.     JOSEPH  HERSHEY  BAIR,  Ph.D.     75  cents,  net. 

4.  Motor,  Visual  and  Applied  Rhythms.     JAMES  BURT  MINER,  Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

VOLUME  X. 

1.  The  Problem  of  Metaphysics  and  the  Meaning  of  Metaphysical  Explanation.    HARTLEY 

BURR  ALEXANDER,  Ph.D.     75  cents,  net. 

2.  The  Free  Will  Problem  in  Modern  Thought.     WILLIAM  HALLOCK  JOHNSON,  Ph.D. 

75  cents,  net. 

VOLUME  XI. 

i.  School  Administration  in  Municipal  Government.   FRANK  ROLLINS,  Ph.D.    75  cents,  ntt. 
a.  Heredity,  Correlation  and  Sex  Differences  in  School  Abilities.     EDWARD  L.  THORNDIKB, 

Ph.D.     50  cents,  net. 
3-4.  College  Admission  Requirements  during  the  Nineteenth  Century      EDWIN  C.  BROOMB, 

Ph.D.     $1.00,  net. 

VOLUME  XII. 
I.  The  Professional   Training  of  Secondary  Teachers  in  the  United  States.     G.  W.  A. 

LUCKEY,  Ph.D.     $2. co,  net. 

VOLUME  xni. 

i.  The  Perception  of  Number.     J.  FRANKLIN  MESSENGER,  Ph.D.     50  cents,  ntt. 


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